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The  Pedagogy  of  College 
Ethics 


BY 


EDMUND  S.  CONKLIN 


A  DISSERTATION  SUBMITTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF 
CLARK  UNIVERSITY,  WORCESTER,  MASS.,  IN  PARTIAL 
FULFILMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE 
DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY,  AND  ACCEPTED 
ON  THE  RECOMMENDATION  OF  G.  STANLEY  HALL 


Reprinted  from  the   PEDAGOGICAL  SKMINAKV 
December,   1911,  Vol.   XVIII,   pp.   421-474 


The  Pedagogy  of  College 
Ethics 


BY 

EDMUND  S.  CONKLIN 

.  • 


A  DISSERTATION  SUBMITTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OP 
CLARK  UNIVERSITY,  WORCESTER,  MASS.,  IN  PARTIAL 
FULFILMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE 
DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY,  AND  ACCEPTED 
ON  THE  RECOMMENDATION  OF  G.  STANLEY  HALL 


Reprinted  from  the  PEDAGOGICAL  SEMINARY 
December,  1911,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  421-474 


THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  COLLEGE  ETHICS 


By  EDMUND  S.  CONKLIN 


I     ETHICS  AND  THE  COLLEGE  YOUTH 

The  fire  of  moral  reform  which  swept  through  the  country 
leaving  in  its  path  the  scare  heads  of  the  muck-raker,  the 
renovated  departments  of  government,  and  the  investigated 
public  servant  and  interstate  corporations,  has  been  followed 
and  supplemented  by  the  wave  of  reform  and  investigation 
for  business  efficiency  and  efficiency  standards.  The  one  is 
the  complement  of  the  other,  if  they  are  not  identical  in  func- 
tion. Moral  enthusiasm  bent  on  the  suppression  of  vice  in 
all  forms  of  life  increases  efficiency;  and  conversely,  the  in- 
crease of  efficiency  eliminates  immorality.  Hence  the  enthu- 
siast for  either  morals  or  efficiency  cordially  welcomes  the 
work  of  the  other.  The  wave  of  moral  reform  has  struck 
the  school,  demanding  appreciation  of  responsibility  for  the 
moral  integrity  of  the  coming  generation.  And  the  school  is 
trying  to  respond.  Opinions  and  experiments  galore  are  re- 
ported; France  is  claiming  to  be  well  on  the  road  to  the 
solution  of  the  problem  of  secular  moral  education ;  and  the 
eyes  of  moral  educators  are  turned  with  expectation  and 
interest  to  the  efforts  of  Japan.  President  Hall,  after  an  exten- 
sive review  of  the  literature  on  moral  education  in  the  public 
school,-  states  that  there  is  no  agreement  and  thus  far  no 
accepted  solution  of  the  problem  (34.  Vol.  i.  Chap.  5).  The 
value  of  the  various  schemes  has  yet  to  be  ascertained. 

Much  of  the  force  of  this  storm  of  criticism  has  fallen  upon 
the  college  course  in  ethics.  Where  it  has  not  been  struck 
directly,  it  has  been  severely  jarred,  for  it  is  inevitable  that 
immoral  conditions  of  college  life  and  moral  inefficiency  of 
the  college  product  should  reflect  upon  the  course  in  ethics. 
Perhaps  the  criticism  may  not  be  wholly  justifiable,  because 


236735 


422  THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS 

many  never  take  this  course,  and  because  there  are  so  many 
other  factors  to  build  up  or  break  down  the  moral  life  of  the 
college  student.  Yet  it  has  forced  the  teacher  of  ethics  to  many 
a  heart  searching  with  the  result  that  many  reforms  have  been 
attempted ;  and  it  is  sure  to  cause  a  careful  consideration  of 
the  proper  content  and  the  function  of  the  ethics  course.  At 
present  we  have  no  scientific  pedagogy  of  college  ethics ;  only 
a  vast  collection  of  old  line  texts,  a  few  attempts  at  an  im- 
proved text,  a  considerable  literature  of  criticism;  and  a 
smaller  literature  reporting  methods  tried  and  suggestions  for 
improvement  based  on  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  needs  and 
capacities  of  the  college  adolescent.  The  teaching  of  ethics 
and  the  cultivation  of  the  moral  life  may  never  be  reduced  to 
an  exact  science,  nor  even  as  approximately  exact  as  the 
teaching  of  other  subjects,  for  the  large  part  of  morality  is 
below  the  threshold  of  consciousness  and  many  other  factors 
than  the  class  room  affect  it;  but  the  fact  that  greater  effi- 
ciency has  been  attained  in  some  cases  indicates  that  the 
methods  of  the  many  may  be  improved  and  that  a  thorough 
understanding  of  the  needs  and  capacities  of  the  adolescent 
plus  a  knowledge  and  control  of  the  moral  influences  of  col- 
lege life  will  produce  a  course  in  ethics  the  content  of  which 
and  the  teaching  of  which  will  be  a  tremendously  effective 
part  of  the  moral  development  of  the  student. 

The  complexity  and  the  seriousness  of  the  problem  must  be 
appreciated.  The  teacher  who  knows  his  problem  sees  per- 
fectly well  that  restrictions  of  college  life  cannot  and  must 
not  be  so  close  as  those  of  the  home  and  preparatory  school. 
Dean  Briggs  of  Harvard  calls  attention  to  the  protest  on  the 
part  of  the  preparatory  school  teacher  that  students  who 
under  him  have  been  exemplary  in  conduct  for  several  years 
break  down  in  a  few  months  after  entering  college,  and  re- 
plies that  something  must  be  wrong  with  the  preparatory 
methods  if  the  student  cannot  stand  up  under  the  new  con- 
ditions more  than  a  few  months.  The  blame  falls  not  entirely 
on  the  college.  Freedom  of  life  in  college  is  necessary  as  a 
preparation  for  the  greater  freedom  of  life  after  college.  The 
adolescent  must  gradually  learn  to  depend  on  himself  and 
whether  in  college  or  not  the  process  is  at  best  a  danger- 
ous one.  A  side  light  is  thus  thrown  on  the  importance  of 
some  degree  of  self-government  in  preparatory  school  days. 
In  a  sense  the  college  does  stand  in  loco  parentis,  but  even 
in  the  best  ordered  home  the  parental  control  begins  to  relax 
in  these  years.  When  a  boy  enters  college  he  begins  a  new 
mode  of  life  which  immediately  makes  a  deep  impression  upon 
him.  The  emotional  change  and  excitation  is  tremendous 


THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS  423 

and  for  a  time  more  important  than  what  he  learns  of  an  in- 
tellectual nature.  There  is  the  thrill  of  realization  of  the 
desires  of  years  or  months  of  anticipation.  At  last  he  is  a 
"  college  man."  It  is  incumbent  upon  him  to  adopt  the  ways 
of  a  "  man."  And  here  is  danger.  There  is  to  be  change, 
there  must  be  change,  but  in  what  direction  shall  the  change 
be,  and  can  the  course  in  ethics  direct  it?  In  part  the  ethics 
taught  can  direct  the  change,  but  apart  from  some  talks  on 
hygiene  in  Freshman  year  the  ethics  rarely  comes  before 
Junior  or  Senior  year.  Much  of  the  moral  education  must 
and  will  come  from  the  contact  with  others,  and  from  that 
vague  but  real  thing  termed  "  college  spirit."  The  nature  of 
that  spirit  is  all  important  and  it  may  be  directed  somewhat 
by  the  teaching  of  ethics.  As  this  course  directly  touches  the 
upper  classmen  and  the  college  spirit  is  largely  determined 
by  them,  it  may  thus  influence  the  environment  and  the  influ- 
ences at  work  upon  the  younger  students.  The  emotion 
aroused  by  the  new  experiences  and  opportunities  of  college 
life  are  bound  to  find  expression  in  changed  ideals  and 
changed  conduct.  New  moral  problems  arise  because  of  the 
new  opportunities  and  new  freedom  of  conduct.  With  the 
large  number,  the  moral  attitudes  and  reactions  have  been  a 
gradual  growth  under  home  and  other  healthful  influence. 
The  moral  character  is  very  largely  unconscious,  or  un- 
reasoned. Habits  of  judgment  and  conduct  have  been  formed 
because  such  was  the  way  of  associates  in  home  and  school 
life.  Now  all  this  is  seen  from  a  new  point  of  view.  Real 
moral  questions  arise,  conscience  is  effective,  and  new  stan- 
dards are  to  be  reasoned  out,  rightly  or  wrongly.  The  youth 
feels  that  he  should  accommodate  himself  to  the  ways  of  the 
upper  classmen  who  surely  know  what  is  right  and  in  con- 
trast with  their  learning  and  experience  with  life  the  old 
ways  of  the  home  folks  are  likely  to  look  prudish  and  picayune. 
He  has  not,  far  too  often,  learned  to  discriminate  between 
the  good  and  the  bad  among  his  college  elders ;  but  even 
though  he  does  attempt  to  discriminate  and  even  though  he 
does  discriminate  rightly,  there  is  nevertheless  a  new  and 
real  experience  with  temptations  and  perhaps  real  wrong 
which  he  has  never  had  before.  Morality  can  no  longer  be 
an  unconscious  affair.  He  has  thought  upon  these  things; 
he  has  been  tempted ;  he  has  met  men  who  live  according  to 
different  moral  standards  than  his  own;  and  it  has  forced 
morality  to  become  a  matter  well  within  the  field  of  con- 
sciousness. The  nature  of  these  college  temptations  and  the 
way  they  influence  the  student  thought  must  be  taken  into 
consideration  in  the  making  of  a  course  in  ethics.  How  bad 


424  THE    PEDAGOGY   OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS 

they  are  is  a  matter  of  much  difference  of  opinion;  probably 
muci  of  the  disagreement  due  to  the  conditions  prevailing  in 
different  sections  of  the  country.  A  few  years  ago  a  Con- 
necticut woman  caused  a  furore  of  discussion  by  publishing 
the  statement  that  she  "  would  rather  send  her  son  to  hell 
than  to  Yale  College."  If  Mr.  Birdseye's  description  of 
student  life  were  to  be  literally  accepted,  she  would  not  have 
been  far  wrong.  His  awful  description  of  the  extent  of  sexual 
immorality,  venereal  disease,  drunkenness,  etc.,  assented  to 
as  he  says  by  many  college  authorities,  is  harrowing  in  the 
extreme;  and  if  true  in  its  entirety,  demands  immediate  and 
drastic  measures  (5  Chap.  12).  In  spite  of  his  sweeping 
statements,  the  basis  for  which  he  does  not  fully  give,  there  is 
considerable  evidence  which  points  to  a  rather  better  condi- 
tion than  he  generalizes.  The  vast  extent  of  Christian  Asso- 
ciation work,  Bible  study  movements,  student  volunteer  mis- 
sionary movements  and  interest,  social  reform  work,  and  the 
like  indicate  that  college  life  is  not  quite  the  hell  which  he 
depicts.  And  the  study  of  conditions  made  by  the  association 
of  Ohio  colleges  (57),  provoked  by  Mr.  Birdseye's  state- 
ments, indicates  that  conditions  in  those  colleges  are  not  so 
bad  as  his  general  estimate,  but  are  decidedly  better.  Every 
college  man  and  every  one  who  has  had  much  to  do 
with  college  students  knows  that  such  temptations  exist  and 
that  some  fall  before  them.  Brockman's  collection  of  con- 
fidential statements  from  college  and  theological  students  in- 
dicates clearly  the  strength  of  these  in  the  lives  of  many 
youths.  His  list  of  severest  temptations  is  not  long  (10). 
Dishonesty,  profanity,  etc.,  figure  largely,  but  sexual  tempta- 
tions number  more  cases  than  any  other  three  put  together. 
The  long  list  of  statements  which  he  prints  shows  the  awful 
extent  of  the  sex  problem  and  the  morbid  state  of  mind  often 
aroused  by  it.  The  curse  of  dirty  athletics,  now  fortunately 
much  less  severe,  bad  fraternity  spirit,  college  politics,  drunken- 
ness, cheating,  lack  of  honor  in  business  relations,  and  a  long 
list  of  other  sins  might  be  mentioned  as  existent  and  demand- 
ing consideration.  They  do  exist  and  perhaps  always  will 
more  or  less,  as  college  is  but  a  miniature  world  in  itself  and 
what  the  world  has  it  has;  but  as  the  aim  in  life  is  to  stamp 
out  disease  and  vice  so  should  the  aim  in  college  be;  for  al- 
though the  aim  may  never  be  attained,  moral  character  is 
made  by  the  effort. 

Those  who  study  deeper  see  something  of  the  mental  pro- 
cess which  the  student  passes  through  in  the  adjustment  of 
his  moral  standards  to  the  larger  relations  of  life.  He  is 
not  mature,  the  adolescent  process  is  not  complete,  the  moral 


THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE    ETHICS  425 

instinct  has  not  yet  reached  its  fullest  adjustment.  There  is 
a  lack  of  appreciation  of  moral  proportion.  Dean  Briggs  has 
treated  this  in  a  little  book  with  sympathetic  understanding. 
(9).  Paraphrasing  from  his  text,  as  a  school  of  character 
college  must  be  a  school  of  integrity,  yet  there  are  certain 
kinds  of  dishonesty  readily  condoned  among  college  students. 
Undergraduate  standards  of  honor  for  college  officers  are 
sensitively  high  and  there  is  often  a  high  standard  of  honor 
manifested  in  the  conduct  of  athletic  training,  in  the  selection 
of  men  for  class  presidencies,  athletic  captaincies  and  as  lead- 
ers in  general;  yet  there  is  an  inconsistent  want  of  honor 
manifested  in  athletic  contests,  in  written  work,  in  excuses 
for  neglect  of  study,  in  relation  to  non-students,  etc.  This 
want  of  proportion  is  peculiarly  evident  when  it  is  considered 
an  unpardonable  disgrace  to  break  training,  yet  not  disgrace- 
ful to  squander  the  hard  earned  funds  sent  by  parents.  The 
student  needs  to  learn  that  a  lie  is  a  lie  and  a  theft  a  theft 
wherever  it  is  committed.  Dean  Briggs,  as  do  others,  con- 
siders this  a  part  of  the  development  process.  This  lack  of 
the  undergraduate  is  due  to  lack  of  experience  which  time 
will  correct.  The  setting  of  high  standards  for  others  in  some 
cases  will  in  time  bring  him  to  see  the  necessity  of  them  for 
himself.  And. the  few  psychological  studies  which  have  been 
made  of  the  college  adolescent  indicate  this  progressive  ad- 
justment of  moral  standards.  Dr.  Tanner's  study  of  the  col- 
lege woman's  code  of  honor  (83)  assuming  common  honesty 
finds  that  "  the  college  girl  appears  to  be  a  person  with  a 
thoroughgoing  contempt  for  sneaking  and  out  and  out  lying 
but  with  sufficient  intelligence  and  sense  of  humor  in  most 
cases  to  enjoy  any  sort  of  contest  with  wits  even  though  she 
risks  her  scholarly  reputation  thereby"  (p.  115).  And  again, 
"  Even  in  the  cases  where  she  is  below  the  average  in  her 
standards,  the  frank,  almost  naive  admissions  and  the  reasons 
given  for  the  views,  seem  to  indicate  that  these  girls,  at  least, 
are  more  undeveloped  than  bad."  (p.  116).  The  fact  that 
the  full  appreciation  of  self-control  and  its  moral  contin- 
gencies is  not  yet  attained  is  indicated  by  the  returns  sum- 
marized by  Dr.  Tanner  thus :  "  The  thing  that  is  least 
condemned  is  deception  for  the  sake  of  some  one  else,  while 
the  thing  that  is  hardest  for  a  girl  to  do  is  to  undertake  the 
reporting  of  a  wrong  doer"  (p.  117).  Earl  Barnes  obtained 
returns  from  both  men  and  women  in  a  university  on  a  prob- 
lem of  honor.  He  found  that  if  the  penalty  seemed  extreme 
there  was  a  tendency  to  shield  wrong  doers,  and  that  the  feel- 
ing of  social  obligation  thus  involved  seemed  to  be  a  little 
more  developed  in  the  men  than  in  the  women.  A  significant 


4^6  THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS 

statement  in  his  study  is  that  iS%  of  the  men  and  17%  of 
the  women  knew  "  the  right  but  frankly  say  they  lack  the 
moral  courage  to  do  it"  (3  p.  486).  It  is  his  conclusion 
that  the  "  sense  of  the  larger  social  self  is  only  partially  de- 
veloped "  (p.  487).  Sharp's  studies  (75)  might  be  used  to 
indicate  a  similar  fact  although  such  was  not  his  purpose. 
This  progressive  adjustment  and  enlargement  of  standards 
is  manifest  also  in  the  changes  of  attitude  which  take  place 
toward  religion  in  college  years  as  Starbuck,  Coe  and  Hall 
have  shown.  Dr.  Burnham,  too,  has  called  attention  to  the 
philosophical  tendency  and  propensity  of  the  later  adolescent 
(12),  which  is  now  generally  recognized  in  adolescent  litera- 
ture. All  these  show  that  the  college  years  are  a  period  of 
adjustment  and  it  is  in  large  part  a  conscious  adjustment. 
The  youth  is  trying  to  get  a  rationally  integrated  concept  of 
life,  affairs,  morals,  religion,  etc.  Bizarre  notions  and  prin- 
ciples are  sometimes  worked  out  and  adopted,  immorality  is 
fthus  sometimes  justified,  but  each  is  only  a  stage  in  develop- 
Vment  and  not  a  finality.  The  youth  is  in  process  and  it  is 
the  privilege  of  the  moral  teacher  to  take  the  youth  at  the 
very  time  when  he  is  formulating  his  ideas  of  right  and  wrong 
and  to  guide  those  formulations. 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  too,  that  there  is  a  change  in  pro- 
gress from  external  to  internal  authority.  Hitherto  external 
authorities  have  been  submitted  to,  especially  in  morals  and 
religion ;  but  now  there  is  with  approaching  maturity  the  pro- 
gressive change  to  an  internal  authority.  The  unconscious 
moral  standards  gained  largely  by  imitation  and  the  reliance 
upon  some  external  authority  for  moral  control  are  breaking 
down,  especially  the  latter,  and  something  must  be  put  in 
their  place.  What  to  put  in  their  place  will  be  the  substance 
of  most  of  this  paper  but  in  a  word  it  is  the  feeling  of  honor, 
(self-respect,  personal  superiority  to  anything  beneath  the 
rnost  virile  of  moral  standards,  and  moral  vision.  This  is 
the  religious  attitude.  The  union  of  self-respect,  honor,  which 
is  the  essence  of  individual  morality,  and  moral  vision  which 
sees  the  cosmological  significance  of  life,  is  religion.  It  is 
the  union  of  the  ethical  and  the  cosmological.  Together  they 
produce  sympathy  and  all  its  higher  derivatives  which  are  the 
flower  of  modern  morals,  and  they  touch  the  old  fundamental, 
basal  feeling  of  religion  which  has  motivated  so  much  of  life. 
Where  religious  teaching  is  for  one  reason  or  another  pro- 
hibited, there  is  no  reason  why  the  religious  feeling  may  not 
be  appealed  to  indirectly  in  presenting  the  cosmological  as- 
pects of  ethics.  The  more  directly  it  can  be  used,  however, 
the  better,  for  it  reinforces  and  deepens  the  impression. 


THE    PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS  427 

With  the  world  calling  for  moral  power  and  efficiency,  and 
with  the  adolescent  of  college  years  in  the  nascent  period  of 
moral  adjustment,  how  insufficient,  foreign,  barbarian  do  the 
arid  ethical  logomachies  of  most  text  books  appear?  When 
moral  problems  are  rife  with  the  student  we  have  been  lead- 
ing him  through  discussions  of  Hedonism,  Intuitionism,  Ideal- 
ism, Egoism,  Altruism,  Utilitarianism,  Determinism,  Indeter- 
minism,  a  little  of  Kant,  some  of  Hegel,  enough  to  confuse 
the  student,  various  references  to  Plato,  Aristotle,  Bentham, 
the  Mills,  Sidgwick,  Martineau,  and  perhaps  a  dash  of  Spen- 
cer or  Darwin,  if  they  were  not  too  heretical.  To  be  sure, 
many  of  the  text  books  have  some  things  to  say  about  the 
development  of  personality  and  the  value  of  habit  in  the 
formation  of  character,  but  in  point  of  time  and  space  they 
are  far  outstripped  by  the  speculative  problems.  One  can 
easily  believe  the  truth  of  the  oft-quoted  story  of  the  college 
boy  who  upon  being  dismissed  from  college  said  he  didn't 
care,  he  got  90  in  ethics  just  the  same.  There  is  a  growing 
feeling,  as  a  few  of  the  new  text  books  indicate,  to  relegate 
these  historic  discussions  to  an  advanced,  elective  course  and 
to  make  the  first  course  in  ethics  meet  so  far  as  is  possible 
the  needs  of  the  student.  To  do  this  there  must  be  a  con- 
siderable treatment  of  personal  hygiene,  eugenics,  all  the 
factors  in  vital  efficiency,  social  ethics,  moral  reforms,  etc. 
These  are  indispensable  topics,  yet  the  old  historic  problems 
which  have  formed  a  large  part  of  the  ethics  teaching  of  the 
past  need  and  deserve  careful  scrutiny  before  they  are  bodily 
ejected.  Those  who  are  clamoring  for  the  rejection  of  the 
old  and  seemingly  worn  out  discussions  and  systems  are  not 
without  much  right  on  their  side,  for  there  is  a  manifest  danger 
in  dwelling  upon  them  with  students  of  the  present.  The  par- 
ticular turn  which  each  took  at  any  particular  time  in  the 
history  of  thought  was  the  product  of  the  exigencies  of  that 
time  and  of  the  temperament  of  the  thinker.  To  lead  a  stu- 
dent through  these  old  discussions  is  a  waste  of  good  energy 
which  might  be  utilized  in  the  consideration  of  living  prob- 
lems, or  the  consideration  of  modern  phases  of  the  same  prob- 
lems ;  and  if  perchance  the  student  becomes  interested  in  these 
ancient  quibbles,  the  interest  is  calculated  to  detract  from  the 
real  problems  of  present  life  and  when  he  gets  out  in  the 
world  he  will  find  that  the  ethics  within  the  college  walls  was 
a  vastly  different  thing  from  the  ethics  of  commercial  and 
professional  life.  And  the  critics  are  doubtless  right  when 
they  say  further  that  the  ratiocinative  treatment  of  ethics  de- 
velops an  undesirable  attitude  toward  the  subject.  It  divorces 
ethics  from  life  and  places  it  in  some  transmundane  sphere 


4^8  THE   PEDAGOGY   OF    COLLEGE   ETHICS 

where  it  is  treated  as  material  for  speculation.  It  is  directly 
opposed  to  the  long  established  pedagogical  principle  of  pro- 
cedure from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract.  But  a  further 
criticism  may  be  raised  to  the  effect  that  in  the  time  allotted  to 
the  average  course  in  ethics  no  adequate  presentation  of  the 
men,  the  problems,  and  the  systems  produced  is  possible. 
Look,  however,  at  the  topics  stressed  in  recent  texts  and  con- 
sider if  they  are  sufficient ;  personal  hygiene,  manners  and  eti- 
quette, liberties,  trespass,  justice,  selfishness,  service,  welfare, 
charity,  duties  to  the  family,  the  community,  and  the  State. 
These  are  valuable,  important  and  necessary;  and  they  pos- 
sess the  additional  charm,  necessary  today,  of  being  prag- 
matic. But  it  is  the  successful-life  Pragmatism  of  Protagoras ; 
not  the  Pragmatism  of  James  which  sees  a  real  value  in  the 
belief  in  free-will,  the  belief  in  a  moral  universe,  etc.,  any  of 
those  great  concepts  which  have  so  long  helped  mankind  to 
interpret  experience  and  to  progress.  These  problems  con- 
tain a  germ  of  truth,  are  fundamentally  human,  else  they 
would  not  have  been  so  warmly  discussed  and  have  lasted 
through  so  many  ages.  And  furthermore,  they  arise  at  some 
time  in  the  life  of  every  individual.  No  college  student  can 
take  a  course  in  psychology  without  facing  the  freedom  of 
the  will  problem,  no  college  student  can  take  a  course  in  bio- 
lo.ey,  if  it  is  at  all  dynamic,  without  being  stimulated  to  think 
a  little  concerning  the  nature  of  the  world  in  which  he  lives, 
and  none  can  view  life  with  the  spirit  of  independence  in 
the  broadening  and  emancipating  environment  of  academic 
life  without  these  broader,  deeper,  more  vital,  ancient  moral 
problems  coming  more  or  less  clearly  to  his  attention.  In 
teaching  physiology  today  we  do  not  force  a  student  to  work 
through  to  full  comprehension  the  Vesalian  and  Cartesian 
theories  of  the  movement  of  animal  spirits  in  the  nervous 
system,  but  we  do  teach  him  the  present  solution  of  the  same 
problems  which  Vesalius  and  Descartes  struggled  with.  Like- 
wise it  may  not  be  wise  to  force  a  student  of  ethics  through 
the  systems  of  Plato,  Augustine,  Spinoza,  Butler,  Paley, 
Hume,  Kant,  Hegel,  Sidgwick,  Spencer  and  the  Mills,  but 
it  does  seem  wise  to  give  him  the  modern  attitude  toward 
these  problems  or  at  least  a  working  basis  for  the  solution  of 
them  as  they  arise  in  his  own  life,  one  which  shall  be  in  har- 
mony with  the  spirit  of  dynamic  practical  ethics  expressed  by 
the  advocates  of  radical  reform  in  the  ethics  teaching.  Put 
to  the  pragmatic  test  one  finds  that  with  the  vast  majority 
it  does  make  a  momentous  difference  whether  or  not  an  indi- 
vidual believes  that  he  lives  in  a  moral  universe.  The  history 
of  human  experience  shows  that  the  profoundly  religious  at- 


THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS  429 

titude  is  a  moral  dynamic  of  superior  potency.  Here  the 
depths  of  the  soul  are  touched,  and  here,  if  the  geneticist  is 
right,  the  whole  experience  of  the  race  reverberates.  The 
importance  of  emotion  in  the  formation  of  moral  judgments 
and  moral  standards  has  been  demonstrated  by  psychology 
and  the  course  of  ethics  which  does  not  reverently  use  this 
factor  is  missing  the  most  powerful  dynamic  in  the  build- 
ing of  character  and  in  the  inspiration  to  moral  activity  which 
the  race  possesses.  The  familiar  terms  Hedonism,  Intuitionism, 
Idealism,  Egoism,  Altruism,  Utilitarianism,  Determinism  and 
Indeterminism,  stand  for  bewildering  mazes  of  controversy 
but  they  conceal  very  real  problems.  They  are  the  scars  left 
by  the  struggle  to  reach  the  present  more  perfect  concepts, 
but  the  product  of  the  struggle  is  none  the  less  important, 
the  more  so  rather  because  of  the  fight  to  attain.  The  youth  has 
these  same  problems  to  face  and  without  guidance  he  may 
land  on  any  one  as  an  adequate  aim  and  principle  of  life. 
The  principle  of  health,  happiness,  pleasure,  vitality,  involved 
in  Hedonism  and  Utilitarianism,  is  an  essential  part  of  modern 
ethics,  but  as  an  end  in  itself  it  is  not  adequate;  the  prin- 
ciple of  immediate  judgment  of  right  and  wrong,  the  seem- 
ing to  know  intuitively  involved  in  Intuitionism,  contains 
much  of  truth,  but  as  a  court  of  final  appeal  in  moral  prob- 
lems it  is  utterly  insufficient ;  the  principles  of  loyalty  to  the  self, 
loyalty  to  the  family,  loyalty  to  the  community,  loyalty  to  the 
nation,  loyalty  to  the  race,  involved  in  Egoism  and  Altruism, 
are  all  essentials  in  modern  life,  but  to  stop  at  any  one  of 
them  is  to  have  made  but  part  of  the  journey  which  the  moral 
thinkers  of  the  race  have  made ;  and  the  principles  of  supine 
helplessness  in  the  face  of  circumstances  or  of  internal  power 
to  overcome  any  obstacle,  involved  in  the  wearisome  discus- 
sions of  determinism  and  indeterminism,  present  a  fundamen- 
tal problem,  a  working  solution  of  which  is  indispensable 
in  an  epoch  of  moral  evolution.  These  may  seem  transcendent 
and  other-worldly  to  the  advocate  of  crass  practicalities 
merely ;  but  they  are  the  principles  under  which  the  more  prac- 
tical and  concrete  problems  are  subsumed,  and  to  which  the 
student  will  more  or  less  consciously  soar,  and  they  meet  the 
pragmatic  test  of  value.  It  is  the  prerogative  of  youth  to 
dream  and  to  seek  the  solution  of  universal  problems ;  hence 
it  is  the  privilege  of  the  teacher  of  ethics  to  guide  him  to  a 
solution  which  shall  bring  him  back  with  unabated  but  in- 
creased zest  and  enthusiasm  to  the  immediate  problems  of 
conduct. 


43°  THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS 

II     INFLUENCE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  STUDY  ON  MORAL  THOUGHT 

Fatalistic  determinism  presents  a  grave  danger  to  the 
college  youth  in  the  moralizing  process.  It  is  a  pit-fall,  a  blind 
alley,  into  which  he  is  almost  sure  to  slip  if  there  is  not  some 
well  designed  instruction  to  prevent.  However  great  the 
familiarity  with  the  scientific  attitude  may  have  been  before 
college  days,  and  it  is  rarely  very  great,  the  force  of  its  sig- 
nificance is  now  doubled  and  trebled  by  the  very  natural  ap- 
plication to  personal  problems.  In  the  readjustment  pro- 
cess the  youth  is  aware  of  various  appetites,  desires,  and  pas- 
sions which  persist  in  their  demand  for  satisfaction.  He  is 
confronted  with  the  scientific  attitude  which  seems  to  him 
decidedly  mechanistic,  explaining  everything  by  an  indefinitely 
extensive  chain  of  antecedent  causes.  There  seems  no  place 
for  will,  for  individual  initiative.  It  is  the  almost  inevitable 
result  that  the  youth  finding  his  appetites,  desires,  and  pas- 
sions so  powerful  and  persistent  should  interpret  them  as  his 
own  peculiar  endowment  beyond  his  power  of  control.  Such 
an  interpretation  is  of  course  indescribably  dangerous  and 
not  that  of  the  broader-minded  scientist;  but  it  is  the  one 
which  the  student  tyro  in  science  is  most  likely  to  make. 
Physics  and  chemistry  have  left  on  his  mind  a  decidedly 
mechanistic  impression.  Psychology,  too,  if  he  has  had  it, 
leaves  a  similar  impression,  perhaps  even  more  dangerous 
because  it  is  interpreting  the  phenomena  of  mind  causally 
even  to  an  explanation  of  the  will  as  an  instinct  foreseeing 
its  end.  And  on  top  of  that,  biology  interprets  life  in  terms 
of  a  causal  series. 

The  study  of  living  organisms  and  their  transformations, 
following  them  out  in  their  evolutional  series  down  to  and 
including  man,  is  fascinating  because  it  is  so  closely  related 
to  the  most  fundamental  problems  of  the  personal  life.  Here 
the  student  touches  the  perhaps  hitherto  tabooed  theory  of 
evolution  and  sees  it  handled  without  gloves.  It  "sends  a 
thrill  of  excitement  through  his  whole  being,  which  is  easier 
to  feel  than  to  explain.  He  feels  himself  no  longer  a  tyro; 
he  has  grasped  for  himself  the  great  fundamental  problem  of 
life  and  he  will  no  longer  be  subject  to  the  absurd  dictates  of 
religion,  the  hushing  attitude  of  pious  parents  and  former 
teachers.  Smug  with  the  conceit  of  his  own  vast  learning  he 
proceeds  to  explain  life  and  himself  in  causal  and  mechanistic 
terms.  Pres.  Hyde  has  cleverly  presented  the  way  in  which 
the  youth  thus  educated  thinks  it  far  better  to  accept  the  opin- 
ions of  Tyndall,  Huxley,  and  Spencer,  who  have  studied 
the  very  fundamentals  of  life  at  first  hand,  than  to  accept 
the  dogmatizing  of  the  priest  and  theologian  (44).  He  is 


THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS  43! 

right  up  against  the  same  problem  which  has  troubled  so 
many  of  the  great  minds  of  modern  science,  but  without  the 
maturity  of  character  and  ability  to  withstand  the  reaction- 
ary effect  upon  his  morals  and  to  think  the  problem  through. 
To  the  youth  in  this  state  of  mind  the  scientific  position  of 
"  suspended  judgment "  is  a  drowning  man's  straw.  It  is 
valueless  because  the  youth  is  intolerant  of  all  that  does  not 
explain.  He  cannot  be  tolerant.  There  is  the  old  urge  of 
life  manifesting  itself  within  him  which  will  not  stop  before 
such  a  figment  of  maturity.  One  could  as  well  stop  Niagara 
with  a  pebble.  A  solution  of  some  sort  will  be  made  and  if 
fatalistic  mechanism  seems  to  be  the  right  one  it  will  be 
adopted.  And  what  solution  the  youth  adopts  may  mean  all 
the  difference  between  moral  death  and  moral  immortality. 
Ethics  must  handle  this  question,  but  few  text  books  treat  it 
adequately  or  conspicuously.  The  free  will  problem  appears ; 
but  rarely  is  it  presented  in  language  which  relates  it  im- 
mediately to  life.  Ethics  has  been  too  fond  of  turning  to 
metaphysics  for  its  explanations.  The  adolescent  likes  to 
dream  and  speculate  and  philosophize,  it  is  true,  and  it  is 
well  that  he  should ;  but  an  explanation  of  this  problem  which 
is  more  or  less  shadowed  by  metaphysical  clouds  does  not  help 
much  in  the  actual  process  of  living.  Metaphysical  freedom 
does  not  help  the  youth  to  be  honest  or  to  overcome  the  desire 
to  drink  with  his  fellows  nor  to  master  his  passions,  although 
he  may  enjoy  the  theory  as  a  bit  of  mental  gymnastics.  He 
must  be  shown  concretely  that  the  environment  has  a  power- 
ful influence  upon  the  physical  and  mental  development,  that 
inner  effort  can  overcome  and  change  heredity,  that  there 
is  a  psycho-biological  explanation  of  the  free  will  problem 
which  works,  and  which  is  not  contrary  to  a  scientific  ex- 
planation of  the  phenomena  of  nature.  The  Weismannian 
continuity  of  the  germ  plasm  theory  must  be  presented  with 
emphasis,  because  it  shows  how  great  a  factor  environment 
and  response  to  environment  is  in  individual  development. 
He  must  be  shown,  too,  the  power  of  nurture  over  nature; 
not  in  theory  only  but  in  actual  cases.  He  must,  of  course, 
be  allowed  to  see  the  facts  and  force  of  heredity  so  far  as 
it  goes ;  but  as  his  own  inner  nature  and  problems  at  that 
period  of  life  dispose  to  a  preperception  for  mechanistic 
explanations  the  emphasis  needs  to  be  thrown  on  to  the 
other  side  of  the  problem.  Those  marvelous  reforms  after 
adult  life  has  been  attained  which  Begbie  reports  (4)  are 
worth  calling  attention  to.  And  Dugdale's  famous  study  of 
the  Jukes,  though  often  quoted  as  a  wonderful  illustration  of 
heredity,  which,  indeed,  it  is,  is  an  excellent  and  impressive 


432  THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS 

illustration  of  the  power  of  nurture  over  nature.  Some  of  that 
family,  in  spite  of  the  direful  Juke  heredity,  were  by  virtue 
of  different  environment  and  different  interests  developed 
*  into  moral  law-abiding  citizens  (21). 

Approached  from  this  biological  standpoint  and  with  the 
attitude  of  the  genetic  psychologist  a  working  solution  of  the 
student's  free  will  problem  may  be  reached  which  is  not  in 
opposition  to  his  scientific  interests.  Of  all  modern  writers 
Jules  Payot  comes  nearer  than  any  other  to  such  a  genetic 
theory  of  freedom,  but  he  unfortunately  just  misses  that  ex- 
planation which  might  be  perfectly  satisfactory  to  the  youth 
struggling  with  the  deterministic  problem.  All  that  Payot 
says  concerning  the  development  of  liberty,  the  cultivation 
of  character,  the  education  of  the  will  as  he  calls  it,  cannot 
be  too  highly  commended.  It  has  made  of  his  book  a  work 
so  valuable  that  it  should  be  on  the  desk  of  every  teacher  of 
ethics,  if  not  in  the  hands  of  every  student.  No  one  else  has 
so  feelingly  and  so  adequately  and  so  stimulatingly  presented 
these  all  important  facts  in  the  cultivation  of  character  and 
personal  efficiency.  But  there  is  a  confusion  regarding  the 
statement  of  his  theory  of  the  will  which  if  left  as  it  stands 
would  not  solve  the  student's  problem.  In  the  place  of  the 
unsatisfactory  theories  of  history,  Payot  attempts  a  com- 
promise by  which  freedom  is  gained  by  struggle  and  hard 
work.  In  his  own  abbreviated  form  his  whole  aim  is  to 
show  how  to  transform  "  a  weak  vacillating  desire  into  a 
lasting  volition"  (64  p.  29).  It  is  upon  this  desire  that  he 
builds.  He  posits  its  existence  in  every  one  not  mentally 
afflicted ;  he  believes  that  every  one  has  a  desire  for  improve- 
ment, weak  and  faint  though  it  be.  By  means  of  meditative 
reflection,  the  association  of  ideas  and  the  arousal  and  nature 
of  the  emotional  life  may  be  altered  to  develop  the  desire 
and  to  assist  it;  the  importance  of  action  in  the  development 
of  will  is  stressed ;  and  the  indispensable  factor  of  hygiene  is 
described  at  length  as  a  basis  for  physical  power  behind  the 
will.  The  attainment  of  the  goal  is  only  possible  by  a  long 
and  bitter  struggle,  and  is  not  designed  to  appeal  to  the  lazy 
man.  It  is  a  long  and  arduous  undertaking  but  the  rewards 
are  worth  the  fight. 

But  this  is  not  an  answer  to  the  freedom  problem.  It  is 
substituting  a  very  valuable  presentation  of  pedagogical  ap- 
plications of  the  psychology  of  attention  in  the  place  of  will. 
His  aim  for  all  in  life  is  a  trained  attention  which  can  re- 
main fixed  upon  its  work  for  long  periods  of  time  and  thus 
assist  the  possessor  to  valuable  productivity.  The  student 
puzzling  over  the  mechanistic  interpretation  of  the  universe 


THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS  433 

and  himself,  especially  himself,  would  not  find  much  help 
in  this.  He  might  be  perfectly  willing  to  admit  all  that  Payot 
says  about  the  cultivation  of  the  desire  by  meditation,  action, 
hygiene,  etc.,  yet  he  might  think  to  find  in  himself  a  lack  of 
power  for  the  self-application  of  such  a  regimen.  Payot  has 
made  the  inhibitory  power  of  the  strong  will  synonymous 
with  freedom,  whereas  freedom  is  a  feeling  aroused  by  the 
choice  process  of  consciousness  and  may  occur  as  well  in  the 
strong-willed  as  in  the  weak-willed,  according  to  Payot's  de- 
scription of  the  strong  and  the  weak.  It  is  desire  plus  this 
feeling  of  freedom  to  choose  which  makes  possible  the  trans- 
formation from  weakness  to  strength.  The  feeling  of  free- 
dom makes  all  the  difference  between  activity  and  passivity. 
The  psychological  key  to  the  problem  lies  in  this  feeling  of 
freedom.  The  fact  of  this  state  of  consciousness,  its  univer- 
sality, and  its  persistence,  demand  explanation.  A  functional 
examination  of  it  reveals  that  it  is  important  to  both  the  in- 
dividual and  the  race,  and  is  of  long,  very  long  standing  in 
the  latter. 

To  get  at  the  genetic  point  of  view  it  is  necessary  to  drop 
for  the  moment  all  other  discussions  and  theories  of  free- 
dom and  will  consciousness  and  to  consider  what  gave  rise 
to  all  this.  Looked  at  thus  we  find  a  very  general  belief 
among  all  mankind  that  a  man  can  do  about  as  he  pleases  if 
he  wants  to.  Much  of  the  time  he  responds  in  an  habitual, 
mechanical  sort  of  way,  but  he,  nevertheless,  feels  that  at 
times  he  can  alter  his  conduct  and  respond  in  a  manner  not 
suggested  by  circumstances.  There  is  a  seemingly  innate 
capacity  for  accomplishment  which  gives  to  the  healthy, 
vigorous  adult  the  idea  that  he  can  do  whatever  he  con- 
siders wise.  Man  has  overcome  all  sorts  of  obstacles  in  the 
struggle  to  exist,  he  has  fought  and  vanquished  the  beasts 
of  the  forest,  he  has  overcome  other  men  who  have  opposed 
his  progress,  he  has  risen  above  the  exigencies  of  climatic 
conditions,  and  he  has  learned  for  the  sake  of  future  com- 
fort not  to  yield  wholly  to  present  impulses  and  desires.  When 
the  question  is  asked,  "  Can  you  do  as  you  wish  ?"  the  natural 
man  answers,  "  Of  course  I  can  do  as  I  wish,  anything  within 
reason."  Thus  there  is  the  peculiarly  human  recognition  of 
the  possession  of  power  whereby  it  is  possible  if  wise  to  rise 
above  the  constraint  of  environment  and  habit,  to  act  at  times 
contrary  to  the  usual  reaction  to  given  conditions.  Any  other 
attitude  is  the  attitude  of  a  mind  "  sicklied  o'er  with  the  pale 
cast  of  thought,"  and  the  product  of  like  minds.  It  is  this 
feeling  of  power,  feeling  of  superiority  to  conditioning  cir- 
cumstances, the  feeling  of  freedom  for  self-expression  as 


434  THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS 

Baldwin  calls  it,  which  has  preserved  in  man's  mind  in  spite 
of  the  sophistication  of  theology,  philosophy,  and  psychology, 
the  idea  that  "  our  wills  are  ours,"  although  we  may  be 
obliged  to  add  as  does  the  poet,  "  we  know  not  how."  This 
is  the  generic  feeling  underlying  the  much-abused  term, 
freedom  of  the  will  and  explains  the  oft-recognized  persis- 
tence of  the  theory.  Its  great  age  is  overpowering  in  its 
^agnitude.  Any  effort  to  comprehend  it  would  strain  the 
imagination  to  the  breaking  point.  It  is  as  old  as  humanity 
and  perhaps  far  older.  Its  history  could  be  traced  far  back 
of  civilization.  The  savage  council  of  war  sitting  in  delibera- 
tion, the  barbarian  choosing  a  temporary  place  of  abode,  the 
troglodyte  preferring  to  wander  northward  with  the  retreating 
ice  sheet,  and  the  arboreal  ancestor  of  man  selecting  a  com- 
fortable tree,  would  all  figure  in  the  history  of  the  feeling  of 
freedom.  Perhaps  its  history  goes  farther  back  still  even  into 
the  lives  of  the  lower  animals,  perhaps  it  has  as  its  antece- 
dents every  experience  of  selection,  the  choice  of  a  mate,  the 
choice  of  a  good  place  for  a  nest,  the  choice  of  one  food  as 
preferable  to  another,  and  so  on  down  to  the  very  earliest 
experiences  of  life.  Just  where  in  the  prehuman  or  the 
human  scale  the  feeling  of  freedom  to  have  done  otherwise  or 
to  do  as  preferred  begins,  we  may  never  know ;  but  we  can 
ascertain  enough  to  be  certain  that  it  is  very  old,  one  of  the 
oldest,  perhaps,  of  human  feelings.  Its  persistence  today  is 
not  then  to  be  wondered  at.  In  spite  of  all  the  arguments  to 
the  contrary  mankind  still  believes  in  his  freedom. 

From  this  feeling  of  power  with  the  recognition  of  the 
desirability  of  an  act,  the  giving  of  assent,  and  the  occurrence 
of  the  act  as  an  immediate  consequent  arises  the  idea  of  will. 
If  one  particular  experience  of  will,  one  will  attitude  of  con- 
sciousness, is  isolated  from  all  the  rest  of  life  and  analyzed 
into  sensations,  images,  and  affections,  we  learn  its  anatomy ; 
if  all  the  will  experiences  and  expressions  of  an  individual 
or  a  race  are  examined  for  their  relations,  effect  on  them- 
selves, on  the  individual,  on  the  race,  on  the  environment, 
if  their  general  principles,  their  potency,  their  values  under 
different  conditions,  etc.,  are  determined,  we  learn  its  physi- 
ology; but  if  all  the  conscious  accompaniments  of  action  and 
reflection,  in  all  species  extinct  and  extant,  from  the  most 
primitive  living  organism  to  a  twentieth  century  man  are 
carefully  collected,  correlated  and  arranged  to  show  their 
evolutional  sequence  and  value  and  their  ontogenetic  parallels, 
we  learn  its  embryology.  And  this  in  brief  is  the  whole  of 
the  necessary  distinction  between  the  structural,  the  func- 
tional, and  the  genetic  psychology  of  will.  The  structural 


THE    PEDAGOGY   OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS  43$ 

psychologist  reduces  will  to  an  attitude  "  always  made  up  of 
three  elementary  processes,  sensation,  image,  and  affection  " 
(Titchener,  84,  p.  520)  ;  the  functional  psychologist  defines 
will  as  "an  instinct  which  foresees  its  end"  (Ebbinghaus,  22 
p.  86)  ;  and  the  genetic  psychologist  describes  will  as  an  event 
that  "  plunges  its  roots  into  the  profoundest  depths  of  the  in- 
dividual and,  beyond  the  individual,  into  the  species,  and  into 
all  species"  (Ribot,  69,  p.  114).  From  whichever  point  of 
view  the  psychologists  examine  will  they  report  their  find- 
ings in  the  sequential  order  in  which  the  events  studied  uni- 
formly take  place;  and  this  order  is  customarily  termed 
causal.  In  the  genetic  study  of  conscious  experience,  the 
psychologist  sees  a  point  where  teleogical  responses  to  situa- 
tions take  place.  Increasing  complexity  in  the  functional 
activity  of  the  organism  in  response  to  the  increasing  com- 
plexity of  the  conditions  of  life  has  brought  about  awareness. 
Further  progress  in  the  same  direction  leads  to  the  memory 
awareness  of  the  end  before  the  action  begins,  to  the  aware- 
ness of  the  nature  of  the  response  required  by  particular 
stimuli  as  soon  as  the  stimuli  appear  as  sensations.  Then 
follows  the  simultaneous  awareness  of  several  possible  actions. 
There  is  the  delayed  response,  called  deliberation,  during 
which  the  various  possibilities  rise  and  fall  in  conscious  clear- 
ness until  one  receives  the  feeling  of  assent  and  the  action 
follows.  The  choice  stage  in  progress  has  been  reached.  In 
the  choice  process  the  various  possible  reactions  are  held  up 
as  imaginal  presentations ;  they  are  compared  in  the  light  of 
all  past  experience  and  knowledge  in  any  wise  obtained,  in 
psychological  terms,  there  is  an  ascription  of  meaning.  This 
may  all  pass  off  quickly  and  as  like  situations  are  presented 
frequently  an  habitual  form  of  response  may  be  acquired, 
but  whenever  some  new  factors  complicate  the  situation,  the 
choice  process  again  occurs.  This  process,  plus  the  emotion 
aroused  by  the  recall  of  past  experience,  inhibits  certain  and 
permits  other  actions.  There  is  no  more  the  mechanical  reac- 
tion to  the  stimuli  present,  but  for  it  is  substituted  the  delayed 
reaction  in  the  process  of  which  the  reaction  is  governed 
quite  as  much,  if  not  more,  by  the  past  experience  of  the  indi- 
vidual as  by  the  present  situation.  When  primitive  man,  or 
those  individuals  of  whatever  species  first  had  the  experi- 
ence, reflected  on  his  choice  and  recognized  that  there  were 
other  possibilities  present  at  the  time,  there  came  the  I-could- 
have-done-otherwise  feeling.  And  as  he  looked  ahead  at  the 
new  situation  just  arising  with  its  several  possibilities,  he  did 
so  with  the  feeling  that  within  him  was  the  power  of  choice, 
that  he  was  free  to  select  that  which  he  thought  best.  It  is 


43^  THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS 

conceivable  that  disappointments  and  mistakes  may  have 
stimulated  this  feeling.  The  regretting  of  an  action  and  the 
wishing  to  have  done  otherwise  throws  the  fact  of  other 
possibilities  strongly  into  relief.  The  first  recognition  of  the 
fact  of  unconstrained  choice  must  have  been  a  tremendous 
impulse.  The  brute  is  subject  to  his  environment;  but  man 
can  change  and  conquer  his  environment  because  he  has 
this  power  of  deliberative  choice,  and  the  feeling  of  per- 
sonal power  which  the  recognition  of  its  possession  gives 
to  stimulate  its  further  use.  The.  feeling  of  superiority, 
the  feeling  of  power  over  conditions,  the  feeling  of  inde- 
pendence which  the  recognition  of  the  value  of  the  choice 
process  gives,  stimulated  its  further  use  and  thus  fixed  its 
possession,  it  made  it  of  selective  value  and  insured  its 
possessor  of  success  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  This 
great  feeling,  which  is  the  feeling  of  freedom,  motivates 
new  conduct,  new  efforts,  and  thus  makes  possible  new 
achievements  in  the  progress  of  the  race.  It  has  released  a 
new  source  of  energy  and  stimulates  its  expression  in  new 
channels.  What  it  has  done  in  the  race  it  can  and  does  do 
for  the  individual.  Sometime  in  the  experience  of  every 
child  or  adolescent  there  comes  the  experience,  attained 
gradually  perhaps,  of  feeling  that  he  is  independent,  or  could 
be  if  he  were  allowed,  that  he  is  a  self,  an  ego,  that  he  can 
control  his  own  conduct,  that  he  is  to  be  a  free  soul.  With 
that  feeling  growth  and  the  overcoming  of  difficulties  are 
possible.  If  it  never  comes,  the  individual  is  deficient  and 
ends  in  an  asylum,  unless  some  one  by  proper  treatment 
can  cultivate  it  in  him.  If  it  is  crushed  out  or  discounted  by 
disease  or  sophistication,  the  individual  is  handicapped  for 
life  or  until  the  feeling  is  again  acquired.  From  the  attain- 
ment of  this  point  on  the  race  or  the  individual  makes  rapid 
strides  in  advance,  obstacles  are  overcome,  problems  are 
solved,  habits  are  broken  up  to  be  replaced  by  new  when  new 
are  needed,  a  vast  new  developmental  power  seems  to  have 
been  attained.  The  events  in  the  causal  series  of  the  history 
of  man  or  the  race  which  have  this  free  consciousness  as  their 
antecedent  are  quickly  recognized  as  being  far  more  efficient 
and  valuable ;  and  it  is  the  nature  of  man  apparently  to  make 
more  and  more  of  it,  to  emphasize  its  value  and  thereby  to 
bring  about  a  greater  and  greater  number  of  such  responses. 
Thus  we  find  that  freedom  is  a  feeling  included  in  the  gen- 
eral treatment  of  the  will  consciousness  and  that  it  is  a  part 
of  the  causal  series,  at  once  both  effect  and  cause.  And  we 
find  further  that  it  is  a  most  indispensable  factor  in  the  human 
causal  series  because  it  is  the  cause  which  has  motivated  the 


THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  COLLEGE  ETHICS  437 

great  achievements.  Without  it  the  great  advances  might 
have  been  impossible  and  the  individual  who  lacks  it  abso- 
lutely is  a  hopeless  derelict.  From  the  psychological  point  of 
view  it  would  seem  that  the  whole  free  will  question  must 
take  on  a  different  aspect,  it  must  become  pedagogical.  Philo- 
sophical disquisitions  no  longer  suffice.  The  feeling  of  free- 
dom is  a  state  of  consciousness  to  be  carefully  cultivated. 

The  intensity  of  this  feeling  in  any  individual  depends  upon 
the  perfection  of  the  native  endowment,  on  the  vitality  and  on 
the  individual  experience.  If  the  native  endowment  is  de- 
fective or  weak  this  all-important  feeling  of  superiority  to 
constraint  is  discounted,  the  personality  is  less  well  knit  to- 
gether, is  lacking  in  potentiality,  lacking  in  differentiation,  is 
flat-faced,  plastic,  and  consequently  the  responses  to  situa- 
tions are  simpler  and  more  direct.  There  is  a  diminution  of 
the  choice  processes  of  consciousness,  at  least  in  their  effec- 
tiveness, and  the  individual  is  proportionately  more  con- 
strained by  every  situation.  The  power  of  initiative  is  di- 
minished. If  there  is  a  strong  native  endowment,  a  powerful 
developmental  nisus,  there  is  not  only  a  strong  feeling  of 
personal  power,  as  there  is  a  feeling  of  weakness  in  the  case 
above,  but  also  the  conduct  of  life  will  be  more  positive,  there 
are  more  complex  and  indirect  reactions,  more  and  surer 
choice  processes  in  consciousness.  There  is  more  initiative, 
more  assertiveness  and  power  to  rise  above  immediate  situa- 
tions. This  difference  is  commonly  manifested  in  the  daily 
contacts  of  life,  but  it  is  peculiarly  demonstrated  in  cases  of 
melancholy,  where  there  is  a  feeling  of  helplessness  and 
resignation.  But  a  good  heredity  does  not  always  insure 
health.  If  disease,  unhealthy  surroundings,  bad  habits  of  eat- 
ing, sleeping,  working,  and  thinking,  the  use  of  drugs  and 
dissipation  condition  growth,  the  best  of  heredity  can  be 
wasted,  and  the  same  condition  of  lassitude,  weakness  and 
passivity  be  developed.  If  the  activities  of  life  are  checked, 
a  similar  result  may  be  produced.  If  the  child  or  youth,  or 
even  the  adult,  is  repressed  constantly,  frightened  into  sub- 
mission, not  allowed  the  freedom  and  practice  of  self-ex- 
pression, then  the  feeling  of  personal  power  and  capacity  is 
stunted,  undeveloped,  rudimentary.  Good  heredity,  hygienic 
culture  and  habits,  and  freedom  for  directed  self-expression 
are  equally  necessary  to  the  feeling  of  freedom  and  personal 
efficiency.  The  lack  of  any  one  may  be  overcome  by  the 
others,  but  all  are  to  be  desired  and  worked  for.  Depression 
due  to  lack  of  vitality  or  ill  health  of  any  kind  is  likely  to 
injure  the  feeling,  while  the  cold  intellectual  mechanistic  con- 


THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS 

ception  of  nature  is  dangerous  because  it  retards  and  inhibits 
effort,  crushing  the  will  to  choose. 

If  this  discussion  of  free  will  is  characterized  by  the  smug 
complacency  with  which  most  articles  on  this  subject  con- 
clude, implying  that  the  final  word  has  been  spoken,  the 
writer  is  apologetic.  He  is  keenly  aware  of  the  fact  that 
much  more  knowledge  is  necessary  before  the  final  answer 
may  be  scientifically  given  to  the  problem ;  but  it  seems  estab- 
lished that  the  ethics  taught  in  college  must  present  the  free- 
dom of  will  as  a  vital  evolutional  and  developmental 
factor.  The  aim  must  be  for  both  teacher  and  student  to 
develop  the  great  fundamental  underlying  feeling,  if  there  is 
to  be  moral  progress.  To  this  all  that  makes  for  healthy 
heredity  and  completeness  of  life  applies,  hence  from  this 
point  of  view  eugenics,  euthenics,  and  the  crasser  practicalities 
advocated  take  on  value.  All  that  develops  the  spirit  of 
power  and  self-confidence  is  indispensable. 

Ill     PLACE  OF  HYGIENE  IN  ETHICS 

Enough  has  already  been  said  to  make  clear  the  ethical 
importance  of  health.  But  hygiene  can  and  will  produce 
more  than  the  feeling  of  fitness  and  the  ability  to  act  freely. 
The  very  process  of  attaining  a  healthy,  harmonious  func- 
tioning of  the  organs  of  the  body,  not  forgetting  the  brain, 
relieves  the  individual  of  some  of  the  temptations  mentioned 
by  removing  the  provoking  conditions.  And  hygiene  belongs 
in  the  instruction  in  ethics,  because  the  best  of  health  is  a 
part  of  the  social  demand  for  morality  and  a  necessary  condi- 
tion of  moral  efficiency.  That  concept  of  moral  health  which 
includes  only  the  attainment  of  personal  morality  in  the  nar- 
rower sense,  which  means  only  that  the  individual  is  free 
from  the  guilt  of  moral  sins  of  commission,  will  not  be  toler- 
ated in  this  day  when  moral  progress  is  the  slogan.  The  con- 
cept must  include  the  capacity,  interest  and  actual  cooperation 
in  the  fight  against  immoral  conditions.  In  an  epoch  of 
moral  renascence,  in  a  time  when  posterity  is  considered, 
when  practical  eugenics  even  is  discussed,  and  when  every 
effort  is  being  turned  by  many  to  the  moral  improvement  of 
conditions  which  need  generations  for  complete  reform,  the 
individual  must  be  fitted  to  cooperate  in  the  moral  progress, 
to  facilitate  evolution,  not  merely  to  be  a  greased  cog  in  the 
machine,  moving  easily  when  others  push ;  he  must  help  in 
the  push.  This  means  abundant  health  and  the  efficiency  now 
so  much  in  demand.  It  means  that  hygiene  must  be  taught 
and  its  practice  stimulated  for  its  moral  value,  and  not  alone 
as  a  science  for  academic  interest. 


THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  COLLEGE  ETHICS          439 

The  ethical  significance  of  hygiene  is  not  new.  Some  of 
the  older  ethics  texts  even  include  a  little  personal  hygiene, 
as  Janet,  and  Hopkins  (47  and  42).  But  emphasis  coordinate 
with  the  modern  demand  has  rarely  if  ever  been  incorporated 
in  the  pages  of  a  text  book.  Those  who  have  written  ethics 
texts  have  usually  been  philosophers  who  cared  more  for 
historical  problems  and  metaphysical  implications  than  for 
the  moral  health  of  coming  generations.  A  change  is  evi- 
dent, however,  in  some  of  the  recent  texts;  but  concreteness 
and  the  broader  aspects  of  hygiene  are  still  to  be  included. 
Years  ago  President  Hall  attempted  it  with  results  which  war- 
rant the  use  of  these  emphatic  words :  "  I  have  begun  a  course 
of  ethics  with  lower  college  classes  and  for  two  or  three  months 
have  given  nothing  but  hygiene;  and  I  believe  the  pedagogic 
possibilities  of  this  mode  of  introduction  into  this  great  do- 
main are  at  present  unsuspected  and  that,  instead  of  the  arid, 
speculative  casuistic  way,  not  only  college  but  high  school 
boys  could  be  infected  with  real  love  of  virtue  and  a  deep 
aversion  to  every  sin  against  the  body  "  (34  Vol.  I.  Chap.  5). 
"  Hence  plain  talks  on  sleep,  toilet,  food,  dress,  exercise, 
recreation,  regularity,  sex  regimen  and  heredity,  training,  in- 
terest in  periodic  weighing  and  measuring,  with  a  good  deal 
of  discussion  about  diet  and  nutrition, — these  I  believe  should 
be  the  basis  of  the  moral  teaching  of  the  young."  If  the 
demand  of  the  times  is  to  be  answered  much  of  this  kind  of 
thing  must  be  included  in  the  college  ethics.  The  college 
scrap  heap  now  being  raked  over  by  the  efficiency  expert  is 
revealing  a  vast  amount  of  human  material  ruined,  and  a 
vast  amount  of  good  human  energy  gone  to  waste  through 
bad  hygiene.  The  unhygienic  life  of  many  students  is  a 
familiar  matter.  Where  there  is  so  much  waste,  some  of  it 
must  be  through  ignorance.  But  whether  this  be  so  or  not, 
good  teaching  might  inspire  to  a  reform  which  would  save 
some  of  that  which  is  now  lost.  Modern  efficiency  studies, 
so  far  as  work  is  concerned,  are  very  largely  applications 
of  long  established  principles  of  hygiene.  And  modern 
hygiene  is  discovering  new  principles  whereby  the  student  and 
all  who  work  or  live  may  work  and  live  at  a  higher  maxi- 
mum of  efficiency.  It  is  this  which  society  is  demanding,  and 
it  is  this  which  the  highest  principle  of  ethical  thought,  loy- 
alty to  the  race,  demands.  The  world  is  now  coming  into  a 
third  great  physical  renascence.  Two  others  have  written 
in  history,  that  of  the  Greeks  and  that  led  by  Jahn  in  Ger- 
many. Roughly  it  may  be  said,  with  much  truth,  that  the 
first  made  Greece  and  that  the  second  made  modern  Ger- 
many. To  what  superman  the  modern  physical  renascence 


44°  THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS 

is  leading  only  the  history  of  the  future  can  tell,  but  that 
such  a  movement  exists  only  the  blind  could  deny.  The  force 
and  extent  of  it  often  fails  of  appreciation.  The  physical 
fads,  the  get-strong-quick  schemes,  the  out-door  sleeping 
porches,  the  interest  in  the  fight  against  disease,  the  many 
societies  and  committees  for  health  reform  of  all  sorts,  the 
millions  of  dollars  invested  in  gymnasia,  public  baths  and 
bathing  places  and  playgrounds,  and  the  thousands  who  make 
use  of  them,  out-door  magazines  and  health  literature  beyond 
enumeration,  revival  of  folk-dancing,  participation  in  sports, 
rapid  increase  of  demand  for  physical  trainers,  not  only  in 
our  own  country,  but  even  in  China,  India,  and  South  Amer- 
ica, societies  for  sex  prophylaxis,  eugenic  movements,  school 
hygiene  literature  and  committees,  efforts  for  national 
vitality,  etc.,  etc., — are  but  a  few  of  the  indices  of  the  modern 
health  crusade.  And  the  whole  has  a  vast  moral  significance. 
The  college  which  does  not  read  these  as  the  signs  of  the 
times  and  adjust  its  course  in  ethics  accordingly  may  not 
only  find  the  moral  and  physical  efficiency  experts  battering- 
down  its  own  doors  but  may  also  lose  a  magnificent  oppor- 
tunity to  be  of  real  vital  influence  in  moral  education. 

To  be  sure  many  colleges  already  have  courses  in  hygiene 
and  where  such  is  the  case  ethics  is  relieved  of  a  part  of  what 
would  otherwise  be  its  burden.  But  the  plea  here  is  that  the 
hygiene  taught  must  be  with  a  moral  significance.  If  only 
the  scientific  facts  are  given  in  the  hygiene  course,  then  the 
ethics  must  build  upon  it,  make  the  moral  applications  and 
inspire  to  practice  in  a  way  which  the  bare  scientific  teaching 
may  not  have  attained.  There  need  be  no  danger  of  wasteful 
repetition.  The  two  courses,  where  they  exist,  may  supple- 
ment each  other  and  make  each  the  more  effective.  From 
this  point  of  attack  ethics  becomes  frankly  biological.  Yet 
it  leads  to  no  crass  materialism,  but  rather,  as  Sutherland  has 
shown,  to  a  most  inspiring  comprehension  of  the  fullness  and 
grandeur  of  morality.  By  leading  back  to  the  biological, 
it  leads  out  to  the  cosmological  aspect  which  arouses  that 
great  fundamental  religious  interest,  aroused  originally  by 
reverence  for  nature.  Fear  of  the  bioligical  trend  reverberates 
the  old  theology  which  condemned  the  flesh.  The  modern 
esteems  the  body  and  gives  it  its  rightful  place ;  and  thus  a 
biological  ethics  comes  into'  harmony  with  the  modern  Chris- 
tian concept  of  life. 

The  simpler  principles  of  cleanliness,  toilet  and  the  like 
are  learned  before  the  college  years  are  reached,  but  the  stu- 
dent rarely  learns  by  home  training  or  by  social  contact  the 
art  of  using  his  body  so  as  to  produce  the  maximum  of  mental 


: 

I 

I  MNJV£*{ 


THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS  44! 

and  physical  work,  and  with  it  the  euphoria  which  accom- 
panies healthy  functioning.  Lack  of  this  knowledge  is  one 
of  the  greatest  sources  of  supply  for  the  college  scrap  heap. 
The  students  broken  by  dissipation  of  one  sort  or  another 
are  largely  the  product  of  this  ignorance.  The  boner  who 
forgets  to  exercise  and  stays  over  his  books  until  the  early 
hours  of  morning  is  quite  as  likely  to  seriously  injure  himself 
as  the  happy  loafer  who  while  rarely  troubling  a  book,  keeps 
equally  late  hours  and  wastes  his  energy  through  dissipation. 
Perhaps  both  do  so  innocently;  doubtless  much  of  the  phy- 
sical misuse  in  college  is  innocent  or  even' well  meant.  Some 
students  overwork  themselves  with  studential  and  social 
duties  and  obligations.  They  get  their  work  and  play  and 
duty  all  mixed  up.  The  value  of  alternate  periods  of  work 
and  rest  needs  to  be  presented  and  applied,  or  the  applica- 
tion stimulated.  The  well-known  law  of  Mosso  and  Maggi- 
ora  that  "  work  done  by  a  muscle  already  fatigued  acts  on  that 
muscle  in  a  more  harmful  manner  than  a  heavier  task  per- 
formed under  normal  conditions "  (59  p.  150)  should  be 
shown  and  its  mental  correlate  demonstrated.  Prove  to  the 
grad-grind  that  he  can  do  better  work  and  more  work  by 
taking  proper  rest  and  exercise.  The  value,  too,  of  spurts, 
of  periods  occasionally  of  extra  exertion,  need  to  be  included, 
for  by  such  spurts  the  organism  is  stimulated  to  grow  and  to 
make  the  structure  necessary  for  harder  work.  Occasional 
forcing  thus  has  its  value  as  well  as  regular  rest.  The  differ- 
ences, too,  between  morning-workers  and  evening-workers 
have  their  application  and  importance.  And  so,  also,  does 
diet  deserve  much  emphasis  in  the  course.  Where  some  stu- 
dents are  starving  themselves  to  make  ends  meet  and  others 
are  filling  themselves  with  indigestible  foods  and  ruining 
their  systems  with  liquors,  there  needs  to  be  inspired  an  atti- 
tude of  reverence  for  the  digestive  system  upon  which  we 
depend  for  the  preparation  of  the  material  from  which  we 
get  the  energy  to  live  and  to  work.  The  results  of  careful 
experimentation  with  alcohol  and  other  stimulants  should  be 
included  that  there  may  be  no  misunderstanding  or  hasty 
generalization  concerning  their  value.  The  student  who  is  in- 
clined to  use  drugs  for  crams  and  special  seasons  needs  to 
know  that  the  new  lease  of  energy  is  fictitious  or  mislead- 
ing, that  it  has  to  be  made  up  for  later,  and  that  the  regular 
use  of  drugs  reduces  the  power  to  do  mental  work.  The 
morals  of  oxygen  supply  need  dwelling  on.  The  neurological 
aspects  of  oxygen  supply,  the  work  of  Verworn  and  others, 
and  the  various  tests  of  work  done,  may  inspire  to  the  better 
care  for  ventilation.  Recreation  needs  hardly  to  be  men- 


442  THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS 

tioned,  one  would  at  first  think,  when  the  cry  is  that  the  col- 
lege youth  does  not  do  work  enough;  but  the  importance  of 
regular  exercise  for  all  does  need  emphasis.  Its  moral  value 
needs  to  be  stressed  and  applied  not  only  to  college  life  but 
to  the  conditions  of  life  into  which  many  of  the  students  are 
going.  The  explanation  of  fatigue  and  its  effects  should 
never  be  omitted.  The  unnecessary  fatigue  from  overwork 
among  the  more  able  students,  which  sometimes  occurs,  has 
already  been  referred  to.  When  this  fact  is  added  to  the 
statement  made  by  Irving  Fisher  that  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
people  in  this  country  are  suffering  from  over-fatigue,  the 
importance  of  instruction  concerning  fatigue  becomes  evident. 
There  is  the  danger  of  incomplete  recovery,  the  increased 
susceptibility  to  infection  when  fatigued,  the  greater  loss  by 
working  in  a  fatigued  condition,  etc.,  which  the  student  should 
know  and  know  well.  If  illustrated  by  the  known  physio- 
logical effect  upon  the  nerve  cells,  the  fact  of  fatigue  becomes 
the  more  impressive.  But  the  effect  on  character  is  the  most  es- 
sential. There  is  a  relaxation,  the  bars  are  let  down  and  the 
power  of  self-control  is  discounted.  In  the  fight  for  character 
a  bad  case  of  fatigue  may  so  relax  control  that  the  gain  of 
weeks  may  be  lost  in  minutes.  And  this  makes  the  ethical 
treatment  and  consideration  of  fatigue  imperative. 

Without  the  broader  aspects  of  the  hygiene  problems,  such 
studies  may  tend  to  the  cultivation  of  self-centeredness.  As 
there  is  danger  in  constant  moral  introspection,  so  there  is 
danger  in  constant  consideration  of  one's  own  physical  con- 
dition. The  practice  of  hygiene  must  become  habitual.  But 
in  order  to  make  the  impression  deeper,  without  the  danger 
of  too  great  emphasis  upon  the  individual  and  in  order  to 
orient  the  student  for  the  eugenic  aspect  and  the  cultivation 
of  personal  interest  in  the  larger  moral  problems,  the  national 
and  racial  aspects  of  hygiene  should  be  included.  As  the 
morals  of  the  individual  depend  in  large  part  upon  the  phy- 
sical condition ;  so  must  the  morals  of  the  nation,  as  a  col- 
lection of  individuals,  depend  largely  upon  the  health  of  the 
nation.  The  moral  and  efficiency  value  of  national  vitality 
and  the  means  and  possibilities  for  its  improvement  can  thus 
be  linked  to  the  individual  studies  and  make  the  individual  the 
more  responsible.  Metchnikoff's  scheme  for  the  prolonga- 
tion of  life  and  the  elimination  of  old  age  is  more  than  a 
dream,  and  his  optimism  is  the  spirit  to  be  desired  in  our  col- 
lege youth.  Prof.  Fisher's  report  (26)  on  national  vitality 
is  a  thesaurus  of  information  and  references  for  the  teacher 
who  wishes  to  include  this  material.  The  moral  and  economic 
loss  to  the  country  by  the  reduce!  vitality  of  the  2,000,000 


THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  COLLEGE  ETHICS          443 

syphilitics,  the  500,000  tubercular  patients,  and  the  3,000,000 
cases  of  malaria  each  year  (Fisher's  statistics),  besides  the 
vast  number  of  other  preventable  diseases  and  the  slight  but 
equally  preventable  ailments  is  too  stupendous  for  compre- 
hension. But  it  is  the  inspiring  fact  of  their  preventability 
which  needs  to  come  before  the  student.  Because  the  tuber- 
culosis death  rate  in  England  is  now  only  one-third  of  what 
it  was  seventy  years  ago,  Because  typhus  fever  has  been  prac- 
tically stamped  out,  because  the  ravages  of  small  pox,  yellow 
fever,  and  typhoid  have  been  checked,  there  is  good  reason 
for  the  motto  of  Pasteur :  "  It  is  within  the  power  of  man 
to  rid  himself  of  every  parasitic  disease."  In  this  the  de- 
veloping social  consciousness  is  appealed  to,  the  biological  as- 
pect of  being  a  part  of  the  race  and  of  assisting  it  in  its  prob- 
lems is  aroused.  Sympathy  and  honor  in  their  best  and 
fullest  sense  are  appealed  to  and  it  is  these  characteristics 
which  are  most  to  be  desired.  The  cultivation  of  health,  per- 
sonal and  social,  is  the  immediate  aim  in  this  kind  of  instruc- 
tion but  the  ultimate  aim  is  the  stimulation  of  these  funda- 
mental moral  qualities.  (In  the  appended  bibliography  are 
mentioned  some  of  the  most  practical  works  on  hygiene,  those 
written  from  the  personal,  community,  national,  eugenic,  and 
ethical  standpoints.  See  numbers  i,  15,  16,  28,  50,  66,  71,  87, 
89.) 

IV     EUGENICS  AND  SEX  INSTRUCTION  IN  ETHICS 

Modern  Christianity,  socialism,  hygiene,  efficiency  and  the 
growing  social  consciousness  has  directed  popular  as  well  as 
scientific  attention  to  the  improvement  of  physical  conditions 
of  life.  The  effort  is  to  give  all  a  chance  to  live  and  to  live 
well.  Resignation  to  wrong  and  suffering  in  this  vale  of 
tears  as  a  preparation  for  eternity  has  changed  to  aspiration 
for  the  realization  of  heaven  on  earth.  The  progress  of  sci- 
ence and  its  wonderful  conquest  of  the  powers  of  nature 
plus  the  growing  recognition  of  the  meaning  of  evolution  has 
brought  the  realization  that  present  conditions  may  be  im- 
proved indefinitely  and  that  it  is  possible  to  cope  with  retard- 
ing forces  and  facilitate  the  progress  of  human  evolution.  It 
has  forced  a  recognition  of  immortality  as  due  not  only  to 
an  undeveloped  social  consciousness  but  also  to  the  physical 
and  mental  deficiencies  of  certain  members  of  society.  The 
attempt  to  do  away  with  mental,  moral,  and  physical  defi- 
ciency has  directed  attention  to  its  source  with  the  result  that 
the  newer  science  of  Eugenics  has  sprung  up.  The  aim  of 
this  new  science  is  to  seek  out  and  to  control  the  sources  and 
biological  forces  which  make  for  or  against  the  efficiency 


444  THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS 

of  life.  It  is  not  content  with  the  expenditure  of  time  and 
thought  in  the  correction  of  criminals  when  they  find  that 
the  criminality  is  due  to  Hereditary  mental  deficiency.  In  the 
words  of  its  founder,  Francis  Galton,  "  Eugenics  is  the  sci- 
ence which  deals  with  all  influences  that  improve  the  inborn 
qualities  of  a  race;  also  with  those  that  develop  them  to  the 
utmost  advantage"  (30).  The  ideal  is  to  substitute  for 
natural  selection  an  artificial  selection  which  shall  breed  a 
higher  race  of  man,  every  member  of  which  shall  be  physi- 
cally, mentally,  and  morally  fit.  Although  the  scientific  prin- 
ciples for  this  may  be  drawn  from  biology,  sociology,  and 
other  sciences,  the  spirit  of  it  is  essentially  moral.  The 
actualization  of  the  eugenist's  aspirations  depends  upon  the 
development  of  popular  feeling.  This  can  only  be  attained 
by  wide  and  careful  dissemination  of  the  facts  and  in  doing 
this  the  ethicist  should  feel  himself  under  moral  obligation. 
Eugenics  is  new  and  to  many  repulsive,  but  the  repulsive- 
ness  is  due  chiefly  to  misunderstanding.  The  facts  which  the 
enthusiast  for  practical  ethics  is  obliged  to  face  make  an  in- 
clusion of  eugenics  imperative.  Davenport  states  (17)  that 
there  are  300,000  insane  and  feeble-minded,  160,000  blind  or 
deaf,  200,000  annually  cared  for  by  hospitals  or  Homes, 
800,000  prisoners  'and  thousands  of  criminals  not  in  prison, 
100,000  paupers  in  almshouses  and  out,  constituting  from 
3  to  4  per  cent  of  the  entire  population.  When  one  realizes 
that  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  blind  and  sick  here  re- 
ported are  so  because  of  venereal  disease,  one  begins  to  realize 
the  magnitude  of  the  moral  problem  involved.  Rentoul 
reports  similarly  staggering  statistics  for  England  (68) 
Davenport  continues  by  estimating  the  cost  to  this  country 
annually  of  all  this  deficiency:  30  millions  for  hospitals,  20 
millions  for  insane  asylums,  20  millions  for  almshouses,  13 
millions  for  prisons^  and  5  millions  for  the  feeble-minded, 
deaf  and  blind  (17).  But  the  cost  cannot  be  estimated  in 
dollars  and  cents.  Morally  the  financial  cost  is  great  because 
a  large  per  cent  of  that  money  might  have  been  invested  for 
the  furthering  of  various  movements  for  moral  improve- 
ment. It  is  greater  still,  however,  because  of  the  moral  drag 
which  all  this  deficiency  exercises  upon  the  race.  The  social 
worker  knows  perfectly  well  that  many  prostitutes  are  defi- 
cient, and  therefore  lead  the  life  they  do.  But  it  is  still 
further  known  that  these  deficient  reproduce  themselves  and 
so  keep  up  the  stream  of  immorality  both  through  heredity 
and  through  the  effect  of  the  environment  into  which  they 
bring  offspring.  Statistics  in  proof  of  this  criminal  or  de- 
ficient heredity  are  rolling  up  to  an  incontrovertible  degree. 


THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  COLLEGE  ETHICS  445 

Davenport  gives  the  case  of  an  insane  man  who  had  two 
mentally  weak  wives  by  whom  he  had  13  children  all  men- 
tally weak.  With  these  cases  of  mental  defectives,  he  pre- 
sents charts  showing  the  apparent  hereditary  nature  of  maniac- 
depressive  insanity,  the  neurotic  diathesis,  Huntington's 
chorea,  heart  disease  and  other  diseases.  He  shows  at  least 
that  the  marriage  of  those  who  possess  such  defects  reduces 
in  the  offspring  the  resistance  to  such  disease  and  increases 
the  susceptibility  to  these  diseases  and  defects,  "  There  is," 
he  says,  "  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  no  case  on  record  where  two 
imbecile  parents  have  produced  a  normal  child"  (17  p.  15). 
His  appeal  is  that  everything  possible  should  be  done  to/'  dry 
up  the  springs  that  feed  the  torrent  of  defective  and  de- 
generate protoplasm."  And  Goddard's  extensive  studies  con- 
firm Davenport's  statements.  In  a  recent  paper  (31)  he  re- 
ports the  studies  of  several  family  histories.  One  of  these 
has  319  members  of  whom  the  facts  are  known  and  out  of 
this  number,  119  are  feeble-minded  and  only  42  are  known 
to  be  normal.  The  Volta  bureau  in  Washington  has  reported 
the  results  of  a  study  of  over  four  thousand  marriages  of 
deaf  and  find  that  this  defect,  too,  is  hereditary  (25).  Years- 
ley  in  England  recently  reports  a  study  of  284  cases  of  deaf- 
mutism  of  which  "  33.09%  were  undoubtedly  the  result  of 
marriages  either  amongst  those  who  had  cases,  direct  or  col- 
lateral, of  congenital  deaf-mutism  in  their  families,  or 
amongst  those  who  were  blood  relations"  (90  p.  310). 
Rentoul  reporting  from  the  English  census  returns  says  that 
"  on  one  day  alone  we  (the  English  people)  had  65,700  mar- 
ried or  widowed  idiots,  imbeciles,  feeble-minded,  and  lunatics 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  many  of  them  engaged  and,  by  us, 
encouraged  in  the,  to  us,  apparently  pleasant  function  of  be- 
getting degenerate  offspring,  in  fouling  the  stream  of  human 
life,  and  in  adding  to  the  sum-total  of  insanity"  (68  p.  41). 
But  the  marriage  of  defectives  of  this  sort  is  not  the  only 
group  who  are  bringing  defectives  into  being.  Rentoul, 
Saleeby,  Metchnikoff,  Fisher  and  the  rest  all  mention  alcohol- 
ism, and  venereal  diseases  as  tributary.  The  predisposition 
to  other  diseases  and  the  effect  upon  the  offspring  of  alcohol- 
ism and  venereal  disease  is  well  reported,  but  the  actual  ex- 
tent of  them  no  man  knows.  Fisher  quotes  Morrow  as  say- 
ing that  the  elimination  of  social  diseases  would  probably 
make  one-half  of  our  institutions  for  defectives  unnecessary, 
and  adds  that  "  in  the  opinion  of  very  competent  judges 
social  disease  constitutes  the  most  powerful  of  all  factors 
in  the  degeneration  and  depopulation  of  the  world."  (26  p. 
36).  Fisher  reports  also  several  studies  concerning  the  effect 


446  THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS 

of  alcoholism  one  of  which  finds  that  over  80%  of  crime, 
48%  of  pauperism  and  35%  of  insanity  are  due  to  the  use 
of  alcohol.  Luther  Burbank  condemns  this  crossing  of  bad 
species  as  "  a  crime  against  the  state  and  every  individual 
against  the  state.  And  if  these  physically  degenerate  are  also 
morally  degenerate,  the  crime  becomes  all  the  more  appal- 
ling "  (n  p.  59). 

It  is  evident  that  if  by  some  means  the  germ  plasm  be- 
comes defective  it  remains  so  and  that  the  offspring  con- 
tinues to  be  defective,  a  burden  and  a  moral  risk  to  the  com- 
munity. It  is  a  man's  moral  obligation  to  care  for  and  make 
the  most  of  the  unfortunates  who  are  already  brought  into 
the  world;  but  for  the  sake  of  efficiency,  moral  economy,  and 
moral  progress  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  bring  others 
into  the  world.  Yet  the  eugenist  goes  further  and  advocates 
the  arousal  of  a  spirit  which  shall  control  the  mating  of 
youth.  This  seems  at  first,  and  to  many,  as  an  idle  dream ;  but 
the  fact  remains  that  sentiment  does  control  the  nature  of 
matings  to  the  elimination  of  some.  Sentiment  has  brought 
in  the  rule  of  monogamic  marriage ;  sentiment  prevents  the 
marriage  of  brothers  and  sisters  and  to  a  considerable  degree 
the  marriage  of  cousins ;  and  sentiment  very  largely  prevents 
the  marriage  between  different  races.  There  is  equal  reason 
to  think  that  sentiment  may  be  developed  which  will  prevent 
the  marriage  of  the  unfit.  The  eugenist  would  have  the 
young  consider  the  parentage  and  health  before  marriage. 
Their  idea  is  to  keep  the  "  germ  plasm  on  the  upgrade."  If 
this  is  to  be  realized,  it  must  come  through  instruction. 

The  ethical  significance  and  importance  of  eugenics  has 
become  patent,  but  the  best  methods  for  its  presentation  have 
not  yet  been  determined.  Some  suggestions  are,  however, 
possible.  The  more  biological  phrases  must  be  linked  closely 
to  the  course  in  biology  if  not  handled  by  it.  Building  on 
the  Weismannian  theory  of  the  continuity  of  the  germ  plasm 
and  on  the  spirit  of  Burbank's  Training  of  the  Human  Plant, 
the  significance  of  a  defective  germ  plasm  and  the  dangers 
of  crossing  with  it  or  allowing  it  to  breed  can  be  made  im- 
pressive. From  the  study  of  evolution  the  student  can  be 
led  to  see  the  vast  advantage  possible  to  the  race  of  an  in- 
telligent selection  substituted  for  the  older  natural  method. 
Spencer's  law  of  the  decrease  of  birth  rate  with  the  progress 
of  civilization,  as  contrasted  with  the  Malthusian  theory, 
(well  presented  by  Saleeby  72),  is  an  excellent  basis  for 
dwelling  upon  the  importance  of  cultivation  of  the  race  by 
seeking  quantity  of  quality.  Few  suggestions  will  be  neces- 
sary to  show  to  the  average  youth  the  application  of  all  this. 


THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS  447 

It  is  almost  sure  to  stimulate  personal  application  because 
of  the  tendency  of  later  adolescent  thought  in  such  matters. 
It  means  emphasis  upon  hygiene  personal  and  social,  to  keep 
the  self  well  and  the  germ  plasm  healthy.  But  it  also  means 
that  youth  shall  think,  as  they  anticipate  marriage,  of  the 
health  and  antecedents  of  the  one  to  whom  they  are  attracted, 
and  that  pride  in  vigorous  health  for  the  good  of  the  race 
shall  be  cultivated. 

The  problem  of  sex  instruction  is  then  immediately  in- 
volved. The  need  of  such  instruction  has  already  been 
pointed  out  in  a  previous  section  of  this  paper  and  the  flood 
of  literature  upon  the  subject  during  the  last  few  years  has 
made  the  need  generally  recognized.  This,  too,  is  funda- 
mentally and  fearfully  ethical.  So  many  false  ideas  get 
abroad  among  students  that  they  are  in  danger  of  acquiring 
a  false  philosophy  of  sex.  Knowledge  alone  can  combat  this. 
Of  it  Prof.  Hodge  says  after  years  of  teaching :  "  My  ex- 
perience with  college  men  encourages  me  to  believe  that  in 
connection  with  thoroughly  sound  eugenic  instruction  we  can 
straighten  them  out  for  life  on  this  point  so  that  in  the  mar- 
riage relation  they  shall  feel  that  they  '  must  be  sure  to  ob- 
serve the  order  of  nature,  and  the  ends  of  God'  (Taylor)" 
(41).  The  eugenic  aspect  transfigures  the  sex  problem  and 
makes  possible  the  treatment  of  it  and  the  consideration  of  it 
with  all  the  reverence  of  religion.  It  comes  to  the  cosmo- 
logical  aspect  of  ethics;  it  touches  the  widest  bounds  of  life 
and  the  most  fundamental  emotions.  Relating  sex  thus  to 
eugenics  and  religion  makes  possible  the  cultivation  of  that 
feeling  of  honor  and  self-respect  which  must  be  the  new 
authority  in  conduct  for  the  youth.  When  brought  face  to 
face  with  the  facts  of  sex  and  sex  hygiene  as  related  to  his 
own  happiness  and  the  welfare  of  the  race,  the  student  must 
inevitably  have  aroused  within  him  a  strong  self-feeling 
which  will  force  far  more  personal  applications  than  the 
teacher  will  make.  To  each  the  problem  is  or  should  be 
sacred  and  its  sanctity  should  not  be  too  far  invaded  by  in- 
struction. Enough  needs  to  be  said  to  cover  the  general  facts 
and  to  inspire  personal  interviews.  The  needs  of  each  are 
likely  to  be  so  peculiar  that  the  personal  contact  is  far  more 
to  be  sought.  No  general  prescription  is  adequate.  In  all  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  instruction  is  to  be  given  for 
the  sake  of  the  student's  future  as  well  as  for  present  needs. 
It  is  to  be  expected  that  the  healthy  among  the  students  will 
one  day  be  parents  themselves.  The  responsibility  of  that 
position  needs  to  be  emphasized.  Spencer  in  a  classic  pas- 
sage has  ironically  shown  the  apparent  consideration  of  the 


44-8  THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS 

teaching  of  child  culture  as  of  far  less  significance.  The  same 
attitude  is  fortunately  not  true  today,  not  to  the  same  degree. 
But  when  the  prophylaxis  societies  are  bewailing  the  ignor- 
ance of  parents,  it  behooves  the  college  teacher  to  see  that 
the  next  generation  are  not  likewise  ignorant.  For  the  sake 
of  the  children  they  will  bring  into  the  world  and  educate, 
they  need  to  know  the  anatomy,  physiology,  hygiene,  and 
psychology  of  sex.  And  they  need  to  know  the  best  times 
and  the  best  means  of  giving  such  information  to  their 
children.  This  point  of  view  as  well  as  the  eugenic  adds  dig- 
nity to  the  subject.  Much  of  this  should  have  been  learned 
previously  in  other  courses ;  but  if  it  has  not,  it  needs  to  be 
given  in  ethics.  In  such  event  it  may  be  wise  to  call  in  some 
one  especially  equipped  for  such  instruction;  and  if  the  col- 
lege is  co-educational,  to  divide  the  class.  But  the  needs  are 
such  that  the  teacher  should  be  equipped  with  all  necessary 
information  on  these  subjects. 

Voluminous  as  the  literature  upon  the  subject  has  become, 
its  pedagogy  remains  still  an  unsolved  problem.  It  is  un- 
doubtedly wise  to  put  something  into  the  student's  hands 
which  can  be  quietly  and  thoughtfully  read  over,  but  whether 
this  something  be  a  book  or  a  pamphlet  is  still  a  question  upon 
which  there  is  no  consensus  of  opinion.  The  writer  is  inclined 
to  think  that  it  is  better  not  to  place  a  detailed  book  in  the 
student's  hands.  It  holds  the  attention  too  long  upon  the  one 
topic,  and  if  it  is  purchased,  it  remains  upon  the  table  or  book 
shelf  where  it  will  be  taken  up  at"  intervals.  The  student 
who  has  had  wise  home  and  school  instruction  from  time  to 
time  needs  no  such  book.  And  the  student  whose  education 
in  these  matters  has  been  neglected  is  morbidly  interested. 
For  the  latter,  a  book  is  too  fascinating  and  exciting.  Leaflets 
seem  to  be  better.  They  are  cheap,  can  be  given  away,  and 
little  time  is  spent  in  their  perusal.  They  are  read  and  then 
if  not  thrown  away  are  easily  covered  up  and  lost.  The  atten- 
tion given  to  them  is  brief ;  the  instruction  needed  is  obtained 
and  the  matter  dropped.  It  must  always  be  assumed,  how- 
ever, that  the  student  will  be  called  upon  some  day  to  give 
others  instruction,  and  for  this  reason  enough  should  be  said 
about  the  work  and  publications  of  the  best  sex  prophylaxis 
societies  so  that  in  case  of  need  they  can  be  resorted  to.  For 
the  same  reason  the  best  books  upon  the  subject  need  to  be 
referred  to  and  described.  At  present,  in  the  writer's  opinion, 
the  best  series  of  pamphlets  is  that  issued  by  the  Spokane 
Society  of  Social  and  Moral  Hygiene,  Spokane,  Wash. 
Theirs  is  a  graded  series,  and  at  present  is  the  only  such. 
The  value  of  the  grading  is  obvious.  The  Rhode  Island  Fed- 


THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  COLLEGE  ETHICS  449 

eration  of  Churches  and  the  Massachusetts  Committee  on  Sex 
Hygiene  (Boston)  publish  three  pamphlets  each,  which  are 
excellent  and  very  much  alike.  One  of  the  series  is  for  young 
men,  one  for  young  women,  and  one  for  the  venereally  dis- 
eased. The  well  known  New  York  Society  of  Sanitary  and 
Moral  Prophylaxis  now  publishes  six  different  pamphlets  for 
students,  parents  and  teachers.  One  of  their  recent  publica- 
tions, How  My  Uncle,  the  Doctor,  Instructed  Me  in  Matters 
of  Sex,  is  a  valuable  addition  to  the  English  literature  of  sex 
instruction.  It  was  written  by  Dr.  Max  Oker-Blom,  a  pro- 
fessor in  Helsingfors,  and  has  since  been  translated  into  ten 
different  languages.  It  outlines  for  the  student  in  an  at- 
tractive manner,  how  through  flowers,  fishes,  birds,  and  ani- 
mals, the  first  sex  instruction  may  be  given  to  a  child.  There 
are  now  several  good  publications  for  this  purpose.  The  two 
little  books  by  Miss  Lowry  (51  and  52)  ;  one,  Confidences,  for 

firls,  and  one,  Truths,  for  boys,  are  excellent ;  and  the  two  by 
mart,  What  a  Father  Should  Tell  His  Son,  and  What  a 
Mother  Should  Tell  Her  Daughter,  are  almost  equally  good 
(78  and  79).  For  the  youth,  or  later  adolescent,  the  supply 
is  not  so  good.  W.  S.  Hall's  two  books  (36  and  37),  From 
Youth  into  Manhood  and  Reproduction  and  Sexual  Hygiene, 
are  good  for  the  young  man,  but  there  are  none  equally  good 
for  the  young  woman.  Much  of  the  literature  produced  for 
these  purposes  is  too  full  of  presentations  of  the  horrors  of 
venereal  disease,  of  personal  prejudice  of  some  sort,  or  is  char- 
acterized by  a  lack  of  knowledge  of  adolescence.  The  teacher 
of  ethics  must  of  course  know  all  of  these  and  many  others. 
If  he  should  desire  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  the  sex 
problem  he  can  turn  to  Forel  (28),  Scott  (73)  and  the  medi- 
cal literature.  Northcote  (62)  presents  similar  material  with 
a  clearly  expressed  religious  feeling.  If  suggestions  for  the 
teaching  of  sex  through  biology  are  wanted  for  the  untrained 
parent  or  teacher  they  are  to  be  found  happily  presented  in 
Miss  Morley's  book,  The  Renewal  of  Life  (58).  There  seems 
now  to  be  a  consensus  of  opinion  among  those  who  have  ex- 
amined carefully  into  the  extent  of  and  dangers  from  venereal 
disease  that  some  instruction  concerning  these  diseases  should 
be  given  to  all.  This  to  be  done  not  only  as  a  warning  against 
sowing  wild  oats  but  also,  and  much  more,  as  a  means  of 
arousing  caution  in  the  face  of  the  fearful  possibilities  of 
accidental  innocent  infection.  And  for  the  sake  of  moral 
reform  and  self -protection  something  too  must  be  included 
about  the  facts  of  the  white  slave  traffic.  Much  material  on 
these  two  topics  is  to  be  found  in  the  literature  already  men- 
tioned and  in  the  references  they  contain.  Unfortunately 
much  of  the  literature  on  venereal  disease  and  the  white  slave 


45°  THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS 

traffic  is  more  likely  to  create  phobias  than  foresight,  and 
this  is  the  danger  to  be  avoided  in  its  presentation.  An  excel- 
lent book  on  these  two  topics  is  that  by  Lavinia  Dock  entitled 
Hygiene  and  Morality  (20).  In  this  the  facts  are  adequately 
presented  and  yet  in  a  manner  as  slightly  repulsive  as  it  is 
possible  to  handle  such  a  topic. 

The  sex  problems  can  be  easily  over  emphasized.  They 
need  to  be  included;  but  too  much  detail  should  be  avoided. 
The  effective  instruction  is  that  which  arouses  feelings  of 
self-confidence,  self-respect,  aspiration  to  the  responsibilities 
of  parenthood,  and  Christian  sympathy. 

V.     PREPARATION  FOR  MORAL  EFFICIENCY 

In  the  preceding  sections  the  aim  has  been  for  the  ethics 
taught  to  develop  feelings  of  moral  and  physical  power,  honor 
and  self-respect;  now,  honor  and  self-respect  must  be  even 
more  sought  for,  and  with  them  the  moral  enthusiasm  which 
expresses  itself  through  cooperation  in  moral  progress.  The 
aim  must  be  to  supply,  in  large  part  at  least,  that  lack  of  a 
sense  of  proportion  in  honesty,  truthfulness,  justice  and  moral 
obligation  characteristic  of  the  college  adolescent.  By  show- 
ing both  the  principles  and  practice  of  moral  conduct  and  of 
moral  reforms  and  by  presenting  the  material  in  a  concrete 
manner,  the  student  may  be  fitted  for  life  in  the  modern  com- 
munity. He  will  be  so  taught  that  after  leaving  college  he 
will  realize  that  his  ethics  was  close  to  the  problems  of  life 
and  not  so  divorced  as  much  of  the  ethics  of  the  past  has 
been. 

When  the  social  consciousness  spreads  out  in  later  adoles- 
cence, when  the  developing  sympathy  reaches  out  beyond  the 
family  group  and  includes  the  nation  and  the  race  in  its  benig- 
nance,  the  individual  is  peculiarly  interested  in  solving  the  great 
problems  of  society.  By  debates,  the  study  of  sociology,  read- 
ing or  by  some  means  the  youth  becomes  easily  impressed  by 
the  immoralities  of  the  social  order  which  permits  various  in- 
justices to  exist.  He  sees  things  in  the  large,  the  very  large, 
and  overflows  with  big  ideas  and  Utopian  schemes.  This 
enthusiasm  loosens  up  the  soil  and  makes  the  very  best  season 
for  sowing  the  seeds  of  moral  activity.  One  of  these  is  the 
evolutionary  attitude  toward  social  problems.  If  the  individ- 
ual is  not  to  relax  later  into  a  hopeless  indifference  toward 
immorality  and  injustice  in  the  larger  relations  and  functions 
of  society,  he  must  have  well  planted  that  view  of  life  and 
society  which  sees  it  constantly  evolving,  constantly  changing 
and  as  such  susceptible  to  reform.  Without  the  evolutionary 
view  conditions  would  seem  hopelessly  fixed  and  the  inspira- 


THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  COLLEGE  ETHICS  451 

tion  to  moral  activity  killed.  But  with  it  there  is  inspira- 
tion to  strive  and  to  eliminate  the  evils  recognized.  It  fur- 
thermore links  up  to  the  broad  racial  religious  view  cultivated 
by  eugenics.  Thus  the  present  moral  conditions  of  society 
appear  no  more  hopeless  than  those  of  the  individual.  As 
culture  may  change  the  individual  character,  so  progress  may 
change  in  society  what  is  not  possible  to  wholly  overcome  in 
one  generation.  The  evolutionary  aspect  gives  a  perspective 
which  makes  the  presentation  of  modern  social  problems  easier 
and  more  readily  understood.  Dewey  and  Tufts  after  a  long 
experience  recommend  the  presentation  of  the  history  of 
ethics,  actual  moral  principles  not  ethical  theory,  as  the  best 
introduction  because  it  orients  the  pupil  and  enables  him  to  see 
the  problems  to  be  discussed  in  their  social  and  evolutional  set- 
ting (19,  Intro.),  and  there  comes  often  with  the  evolutionary 
view,  as  with  the  eugenic  idea,  a  feeling  of  obligation.  The 
individual  realizes  the  significance  of  his  relation  to  the  whole, 
that  what  he  is  can  help  or  hinder,  and  this  feeling  of  obliga- 
tion is  fundamental  to  ethical  activity. 

In  bringing  the  student  into  the  evolutional  attitude  toward 
ethical  problems  stress  must  be  placed  upon  the  family.  As 
an  evolutionary  and  civilizing  factor  the  family  stands  su- 
preme. Not  only  must  its  permanence  be  insured  by  such 
instruction,  but  from  such  a  viewpoint  some  of  the  dangers 
of  evolutional  ethics  may  be  obviated.  Without  some  point 
of  orientation  the  student  might  well  be  lost  in  the  sea  of  evo- 
lution, but  if  oriented  by  the  family,  its  welfare  and  preserva- 
tion, he  should  be  able  to  steer  clear  of  the  dangers  which  some 
see  in  this  form  of  teaching.  As  the  deterioration  of  family 
life  is  one  of  the  great  moral  problems  of  the  present,  it  be- 
comes increasingly  important  that  its  value  to  morals  and 
civilization  be  so  stressed.  Both  as  a  factor  in  the  preparation 
for  moral  efficiency  and  in  the  solution  of  immediate  moral 
problems,  the  family  must  be  emphasized.  Most  of  our  col- 
lege youth  have  come  from  good  homes,  and  in  many,  if  not 
most,  there  is  deep  down  in  their  hearts  a  love  for  their 
parents.  Like  religion  it  is  often  too  deep  and  sacred  to  be 
dragged  out  and  discussed,  but  a  tactful  consideration  of  the 
family  and  of  family  ties  can  be  used  to  rearouse  a  perhaps 
momentarily  submerged  love  of  mother  or  of  father  which 
will  serve  as  an  anchor  in  the  turmoil  of  moral  doubt  and 
change.  As  a  part  in  his  preparation  for  moral  efficiency,  the 
youth  needs  to  know  something  of  the  history  of  the  family, 
how  it  has  come  to  be,  and  the  steadying  force  which  it  has 
exerted.  The  inspiring  story  of  Sutherland  (82)  and  the 
forceful  words  of  Mrs.  Bosanquet  (7)  should  be  brought  to 
his  attention.  After  such  an  orientation,  the  appalling  statis- 


452  THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS 

tics  of  divorce  and  the  decline  of  home  life  can  arouse  appre- 
ciation of  the  importance  of  the  efforts  to  maintain  the  home 
as  a  vital  institution. 

With  the  presentation  of  the  ethical  value  of  the  family  and 
the  home  is  opportunity  for  the  presentation  of  what  is  known 
about  the  moral  training  of  children.  The  demand  for  this 
needs  hardly  to  be  mentioned.  The  literature  is  vast  (see 
President  Hall's  chapter  on  moral  education,  34),  and  while 
there  is  little  consensus  of  opinion  concerning  the  best  methods 
to  be  employed  in  the  school,  there  is  a  considerable  body  of 
knowledge  produced  by  the  students  of  child  life  and  by  teach- 
ers which  can  be  readily  applied  to  home  training.  All  the 
studies  show  a  world-wide  demand  for  better  moral  training. 
Toward  this  the  course  in  ethics  can  contribute  by  preparing 
the  parents  of  the  future.  For  simpler  presentations  and  for 
practical  use  and  recommendation  Prof.  Sisson's  recent  book 
on  the  essentials  of  character  (77)  and  the  books  by  Mrs. 
Cabot  (13  and  14)  are  especially  worthy  of  mention. 

The  preparation  for  a  life  of  moral  activity  that  is  worth 
while  is  the  preparation  for  moral  efficiency.  Part  of  this 
has  been  provided  for  in  the  sections  on  hygiene  and  eugenics, 
but  only  part.  The  field,  conditions,  and  opportunities  for 
such  activity  need  also  to  be  presented,  and  to  be  considered 
from  the  view  point  of  efficiency.  That  in  moral  activity 
which  is  inefficient  is  by  so  much  immoral.  The  moral  man 
whose  influence  is  discounted  by  certain  shady  practices  in 
business  is  by  so  much  immoral  as  well  as  inefficient.  The 
philanthropy  which  is  wasting  trust  funds  by  neglect  of  ac- 
counts and  supervision  is  by  so  much  immoral.  The  efficiency 
movement  led  by  experts  is  turning  its  light  upon  all  forms 
of  life.  The  energy  wasted  by  children  in  our  schools  in  the 
study  of  subjects  which  are  afterward  of  no  use  or  value  is 
being  brought  to  light  and  the  rapid  growth  of  industrial  edu- 
cation is  the  result  of  the  appreciation  of  that  waste.  The 
industrial  education  has  branched  out  and  grown  into  voca- 
tional training.  Colleges  and  universities  prepare  not  only 
for  the  different  professions  but  also  for  callings  not  hitherto 
dignified  by  the  name  of  profession.  Efficiency  tests  and 
standards  are  being  worked  out  for  the  various  departments 
of  business,  government,  education,  philanthropy,  etc.  Allen 
defines  the  scope  of  this  movement  thus :  "  Where  standards 
of  administration  are  unsatisfactory ;  where  taxes  are  too  high 
and  buy  too  little;  where  schools  waste  taxpayers'  money, 
pupils'  time  and  democracy's  opportunity ;  where  results  of 
religious  work  are  disappointing:  where  hospitals  regularly 
incur  deficits;  where  crime  is  neither  controlled  nor  under- 
stood; where  civic  and  educational  leaders  make  futile  pro- 


THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS  453 

tests  against  political  corruption ;  where  good  intention  is  per- 
mitted to  cover  a  multitude  of  administrative  sins;  where 
charity  injures  those  it  aims  to  help; — efficiency  tests  will  be 
found  lacking."  (2.  Preface).  And  here  they  are  to  be  sup- 
plied. Allen's  work  well  represents  the  spirit  and  methods 
of  the  movement.  He  proposes  to  substitute  an  efficiency  test 
for  the  goodness  test.  For  him  "  the  good  man  we  talk  about 
so  much  does  not  exist ;  or  rather  he  exists  in  so  many  shapes 
and  types  that  the  composite  can  never  be  found"  (2,  p.  2). 
"  There  are  at  this  very  time  good  men  so  bigoted  as  to  be- 
lieve that  all  who  oppose  trusts,  protective  tariff,  high  license, 
are  good  while  all  who  defend  them  are  bad.  Thus  it  happens 
that  knowing  a  man  to  be  good,  upright,  honorable,  Christian, 
furnishes  no  basis  whatever  for  determining  whether  he  be- 
lieves in  free  silver  or  gold  only,  whether  he  is  Protestant, 
Catholic,  or  Jew,  republican  or  democratic,  socialist  or  reac- 
tionary, total  abstainer  or  moderate  drinker,  a  help  or  a  hin- 
drance to  his  f  ellowman.  Still  less  does  it  of  itself  indicate  his 
suitability  for  position  of  mayor,  auditor,  alderman,  pastor, 
hospital  trustee  or  school  superintendent"  (2,  p.  3  and  4). 
And  he  proceeds  to  apply  this  rigidly  to  hospitals,  schools, 
charitable  work,  prevention  of  crime,  religious  work,  govern- 
ment, and  the  making  of  bequests,  showing  the  methods  for 
statistical  reporting  and  treatment  in  order  to  present  the 
actual  efficiency  of  each.  This  may  be  in  large  part  econom- 
ics, but  its  ethical  significance  is  likewise  apparent.  If  the 
aim  of  the  ethics  course  is  to  have  its  graduates  participate  in 
the  affairs  of  life  morally  and  in  the  active  movements  for 
moral  reform  efficiently,  it  must  inculcate  this  spirit  of  moral 
efficiency  by  studying  the  wrongs,  the  maladministrations,  the 
mistakes,  the  frauds,  and  the  means  of  their  alleviation.  Its 
presentation  of  practical  ethics  must  be  from  the  efficiency 
view  point.  President  Hadley  has  presented  the  problem  from 
the  evolutionary  moral  aspect  by  comparing  the  conduct  of 
men  of  today  in  private  and  in  public  life.  In  private  life, 
with  their  families,  neighbors,  and  club  associates,  men  are 
generally  courteous,  self-respecting,  helpful,  unselfish,  gener- 
ous in  case  of  a  great  calamity,  and  commit  a  thousand  acts 
of  daily  sacrifice  the  world  never  knows.  But  the  same  men 
in  politics  or  in  business  will  ruthlessly  hurt  a  weak  competitor 
for  money  or  for  office,  will  be  selfish,  will  be  snobbish  and 
servile  for  the  sake  of  advancement  or  power,  will  lie  or  cheat. 
And  in  answer  to  the  question  why  concludes  that  "  men  have 
been  trying  to  live  in  peace  and  harmony  with  those  about  them 
for  so  many  thousand  years,  that  we  know  what  is  needed  to 
keep  the  peace.  But  there  have  been  so  few  hundred  years 
since  we  began  experimenting  with  the  present  commercial 


454  THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS 

and  industrial  system,  that  we  do  not  yet  know  what  virtues 
are  needed  for  its  maintenance"  (32,  p.  12).  Every  muck 
rake  brings  up  a  new  argument  for  the  need  of  moral  efficiency 
and  the  preparation  for  those  higher  and  racially  newer  fields 
of  morality  for  which  imagination  is  needed.  The  things 
which  are  immediate,  which  we  can  see  and  feel  or  readily 
imagine,  are  emphatically  judged  right  or  wrong,  real  moral 
emotion  is  aroused;  but  the  things  which  come  to  us  only 
indirectly,  which  are  long  circuited,  the  actual  source  or  effect 
of  which  is  hard  to  follow,  which  tax  the  imagination,  are  the 
things  which  are  not  so  emphatically  praised  or  condemned. 
We  have  not  had,  as  President  Hadley  says,  so  long  an  experi- 
ence with  these  forms  of  immorality  and  hence  they  do  not 
arouse  such  intense  emotion.  Prof.  Ross  has  happily  said 
(70)  that  distance  disinfects  dividends.  Unfortunately  it  does 
for  the  many  because  the  distance  makes  the  filth  invisible. 
It  is  for  these  problems  that  the  student  needs  careful  and 
special  preparation.  He  must  have  seen  them  in  the  concrete 
so  many  times  as  to  be  able  to  detect  at  once  the  wrong  involved 
and  to  respond  readily  with  the  condemnatory  judgment.  All 
these  immoralities  and  inefficiencies,  these  sins  of  commission 
and  omission,  must  be  worked  over  until  a  real  and  strong 
aversion  is  built  up.  The  world  into  which  the  student  is  go- 
ing is  not  made  of  such  stuff  as  most  ethics  texts  are  made  of, 
but  it  is  a  world  where  moral  problems  are  hot.  He  is  going 
into  a  world  where  discussions  of  the  highest  good,  categorical 
imperatives,  and  Hedonistic  calculus,  are  overshadowed  by  fal- 
sification of  values,  short  weights,  watered  stock,  bogus  mines 
and  medicines,  gold  bricks,  counterfeit  money,  fake  corpora- 
tions, stock  gambling,  bucket  shops,  secret  rebating,  interfer- 
ence with  legislation,  evasion  of  laws  and  a  host  of  other  sins 
against  society.  His  knowledge  of  actual  morality  must  be 
such  and  the  breadth  of  his  social  consciousness  such  that  the 
immorality  in  all  these  will  be  recognized  instantly.  That 
character  and  insight  is  to  be  sought  which  can  follow  the 
path  of  the  long  circuited  effect  and  responsibility  to  its  end, 
and  which  will  conduct  all  affairs  municipal,  commercial,  pro- 
fessional, and  philanthropic  with  the  same  maximum  degree  of 
efficiency.  The  character  which  is  good  because  it  is  efficient 
both  in  work  and  moral  conduct  is  superior  even  to  Allen's 
efficient  man.  He  would  substitute  efficiency  for  goodness 
only  because  our  standards  of  goodness  have  not  kept  pace 
with  our  standards  of  efficiency.  Such  being  true  we  need 
to  clean  up  our  standards  of  goodness  and  inculcate  the  best 
in  our  students.  The  best  will  be  superior  even  to  efficiency 
because,  while  including  efficiency,  it  will  add  to  it  the  moral 


THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  COLLEGE  ETHICS          455 

instinct  finding  expression  in  both  feelings  and  acts  of  sym- 
pathy and  compassion. 

A  vast  number  of  youths  go  to  college  without  knowing  or 
thinking  much  of  what  they  will  make  their  business  in  life. 
Many  who  go  to  college  with  a  well-defined  plan,  change  it 
entirely  as  a  result  of  the  new  interest  aroused  and  the 
broader  vision  gained.  The  problem  of  what  to  do  in  life 
becomes  very  acute  in  the  later  college  years.  Many  who 
might  far  better  go  into  other  vocations  turn  to  teaching  be- 
cause lesson-getting  is  the  only  world  they  know  and  they 
are  afraid  to  attempt  the  unknown.  Vocational  bureaus  have 
been  established  as  a  consequence  of  the  realization  of  the 
fact  that  so  many  boys  upon  leaving  the  public  schools  take 
whatever  job  they  can  get;  and  many  times  worry  through 
life  as  a  square  peg  in  a  round  hole.  Meyer  Bloomfield  has 
recently  described  the  need  and  methods  of  this  work  in  an 
able  and  stimulating  manner  (6).  But  what  of  the  college 
student?  How  many  of  them  become  square  pegs  in  round 
holes?  Various  religious  agencies  are  presenting  life  work 
talks  to  students,  and  faculty  advisers  doubtless  do  much  to 
help  the  student  with  these  problems.  A  few  institutions 
have  even  had  courses  of  lectures  on  the  different  professions. 
But  from  personal  observation  in  a  considerable  number  of 
colleges  the  writer  knows  that  in  those  colleges  a  vast  number 
of  students  know  little  or  nothing  of  the  actual  nature  of 
the  different  vocations.  They  need  sound  advice  and  instruc- 
tion concerning  the  opportunities  in  the  different  possible 
fields  of  work  concerning  the  ethical  problems  which 
people  in  those  vocations  have  to  face.  Bloomfield  says  that 
courses  of  lectures  have  been  given  at  Harvard,  Boston  Uni- 
versity, Tufts  College  and  elsewhere  "  dealing  with  the  occu- 
pations and  their  requirements"  (6,  p.  65).  Aside  from  the 
actual  possibilities  of  success  in  the  different  callings,  which 
is  in  itself  a  great  moral  problem,  there  is  a  peculiar  ethical 
problem  wrapped  up  in  each.  Take  Bloomfield's  list,  teach- 
ing, architecture,  journalism,  law,  commerce,  philanthropy, 
industrial  work,  business,  agriculture,  forestry,  medicine, 
special  fields  for  women,  art,  music,  drama,  scientific  pursuits, 
politics  and  public  service,  and  consider  them.  Each  subjects 
its  members  to  different  conditions  in  which  the  moral  prob- 
lems are  different.  The  ethics  of  the  medical  profession 
are  now  being  discussed  seriously  by  its  members ;  the  ethics 
of  the  law  is  a  problem  of  long  standing;  journalism  is  fre- 
quently attacked  for  its  apparent  lack  of  interest  in  morality 
in  the  face  of  its  incomparable  opportunity  to  mould  public 
opinion  into  moral  channels ;  some  of  the  problems  peculiar 


45^  THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS 

to  business  have  already  been  mentioned ;  and  it  is  evident 
that  the  man  in  the  laboratory  or  the  school  room,  faces 
ethical  problems  as  different  from  those  of  the  man  in  the 
studio,  the  pulpit,  the  factory,  the  forest,  or  the  chair  of 
office  as  their  moral  problems  are  different  from  each  other. 
The  student  should  be  acquainted  with  the  moral  dangers  pe- 
culiar to  his  chosen  calling  before  he  is  blinded  to  them  by 
the  furious  struggle  to  succeed.  And  when  the  youth  is  in- 
tensely interested  in  the  problem  of  vocational  choice,  there  is 
a  nascent  period  for  such  instruction.  It  would  make  ethics 
real  and  appealing.  It  would  give  the  youth  a  preperception 
for  moral  dangers  which  might  save  from  calamity.  For 
the  sake  of  mere  efficiency  his  choice  of  a  vocation  must  be 
intelligently  guided,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  moral  problems 
given,  but  for  the  sake  of  moral  progress  he  must  be 
prepared  to  participate  intelligently  and  effectively.  Prepara- 
tion for  participation  in  the  affairs  of  state  may  be  included 
in  this  as  every  man  must  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  assist 
in  government.  The  relation  of  every  vocation  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  people  at  large  is  a  part  of  the  ethics  of  every 
vocation.  This  relation  has  in  ethics  more  than  any  other 
of  the  so-called  practical  problems  been  stressed.  It  was  one 
of  the  first  to  be  introduced,  as  the  next  section  shows,  and 
it  is  almost  invariably  included  in  some  manner  or  degree. 
But  the  facts  of  it  need  vitalization  by  an  infusion  of  the 
concrete. 

The  vast  number  of  social  betterment  and  moral  improve- 
ment societies  and  movements  which  have  grown  up  rapidly 
in  the  last  twenty  years  brings  a  new  department  into  modern 
ethics.  They  not  only  indicate  a  recognition  of  responsibility 
for  the  improvement  of  moral  conditions,  for  the  facilitation 
pf  moral  progress,  but  they  also  present  a  demand  for  in- 
telligent cooperation  and  direction.  Efficiency  is  the  spirit 
of  modern  philanthropy.  Efficiency  tests  and  standards  are 
being  applied  to  church  work,  hospitals,  settlements,  and  the 
like,  with  a  view  to  making  the  time  and  money  invested 
for  moral  betterment  as  effective  as  possible.  The  inefficiency 
of  many  such  movements  has  been,  and  may  still  be  in 
some  cases,  due  to  ignorance,  indifference,  and  a  feeling  that 
such  work  should  be  dominated  more  by  emotion  than  by 
sound  judgment  and  knowledge  of  the  best  methods.  As 
Allen  and  others  have  shown,  trustees  and  directors  have 
leniently  allowed  methods  which  would  not  be  tolerated  in 
business.  Now  that  such  vast  sums  are  being  invested  in 
welfare  work  there  is  the  demand  for  effective  administration. 
And  this  demand  is  extensive  because  of  the  vast  number  of 


THE   PEDAGOGY   OF    COLLEGE   ETHICS  457 

such  organizations.  It  means  that  a  large  number  of  people 
must  be  able  to  direct  these  movements  intelligently.  Be- 
sides this  it  must  be  recognized  that  the  college  students  are 
to  be  citizens  and  parents  and  as  such  should  be  prepared  to 
use  the  publications  and  employees  of  these  societies  when 
there  is  need,  and  to  know  what  sort  of  work  is  done  in  order 
that  they  can  suggest  and  initiate  when  their  community  has 
some  special  need. 

Work  for  the  protection  and  reform  of  the  morals  of  child 
life  is  an  extensive  department  by  itself.  The  juvenile  courts, 
established  now  for  more  than  ten  years,  demand  expert 
thought  and  direction.  The  probation  system  which  has 
grown  up  with  them  demands  the  cooperation  of  intelligent 
people  of  sound  judgment  and  knowledge  of  child  life  and 
social  conditions.  Both  young  men  and  women  graduates 
can  if  prepared  be  efficient  in  such  service.  College  women 
have  been  especially  effective  as  probation  officers  for  way- 
ward girls.  In  the  first  ten  years  of  the  Chicago  court  over 
thirty-one  thousand  children  passed  before  the  judge  and  of 
the  boys  put  on  probation  80%  never  again  came  before  the 
court,  but  of  the  girls  only  55%  did  not  come  up  again.  This 
is  an  index  of  the  seriousness  of  the  delinquent  girl  problem. 
The  thrilling  story  of  Lindsey's  fight  for  the  children  of 
Denver  should  be  familiar  to  every  student  of  ethics  (49). 
Some  mention  should  be  made  of  the  work  of  societies  for 
the  prevention  of  corruption,  as  that  of  the  New  York  So- 
ciety for  the  Prevention  of  Vice,  made  famous  by  the  life  and 
work  of  Anthony  Comstock;  of  the  work  of  the  National 
Child  Labor  Committee  which  is  endeavoring  to  relieve  the 
conditions  made  by  the  employment  in  this  country  of  more 
than  a  million  and  three-quarters  of  children  under  fifteen 
years  of  age;  of  the  scheme  for  a  children's  bureau  of  the 
Federal  Government  for  the  investigation  of  infant  mortality, 
delinquency,  degeneracy,  employment,  orphanage,  and  the 
like ;  of  the  work  of  Day  Nurseries  which  provide  for  the 
children  of  the  unfortunate;  and  something  too  of  the  laws 
for  child  protection  concerning  immoral  shows,  selling  liquors 
to  minors,  admittance  to  pool  rooms,  distribution  of  obscene 
literature,  immoral  advertisements,  for  children's  courts,  and 
for  parks  and  playgrounds.  The  efforts  for  the  prevention 
of  the  wastage  of  child  life  through  their  eugenic  aspects 
have  much  of  ethical  importance.  And  this,  of  course,  in- 
cludes the  ignorant  mother  as  well  as  the  child.  The 
work  of  the  Kaiserin-Auguste-Victoria  Haus  in  Charlotten- 
burg  could  well  be  taken  as  a  model.  It  has  twenty-nine  dif- 
ferent departments  of  research,  owns  its  own  milk  plant  and 


45$  THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS 

stables,  has  laboratories  for  research,  consulting  physicians,  a 
school  for  mothers,  an  out  department,  a  training  school  for 
nurses,  a  kindergarten  course,  teaches  cooking,  washing, 
sewing,  mending,  making  of  children's  clothes,  the  physiology 
and  hygiene  of  the  child,  and  the  practical  care  of  the  child. 
A  similar  piece  of  work  in  Ghent  has  in  a  few  years  reduced 
the  infant  mortality  from  33%  to  4%.  In  this  country  the 
Caroline  Rest  in  New  York,  some  churches,  settlements,  and 
societies  are  doing  much  the  same  work  although  not  on  so 
large  a  scale.  And  in  addition,  the  graduate  going  out  into 
the  world  should  know  something  of  the  work  of  social  set- 
tlements, the  methods  of  institutional  churches,  Christian  As- 
sociations, boys'  clubs,  Boy  Scouts,  Big  Brother  and  Big 
Sister  Movements,  substitutes  for  the  saloon,  the  International 
Reform  Bureau,  and  the  various  agencies  with  which  he  will 
come  into  contact  as  a  citizen  or  have  occasion  to  use  in  the 
moral  improvement  of  his  own  community. 

And  this  material  should  not  be  presented  as  so  many  bare 
facts.  Morality  based  on  a  race-old  feeling  is  not  easily 
aroused  by  reason.  But  concrete  illustrations  of  the  condi- 
tions which  the  various  organizations  are  attempting  to  fight 
arouse  the  moral  instinct  and  make  the  impression  lasting. 
The  teacher  should  collect  a  store  of  such  illustrations  to  be 
used  as  occasion  offers.  If  the  college  is  connected  with  a 
social  settlement,  or  has  access  to  boys'  and  girls'  clubs, 
some  first-hand  knowledge  can  be  obtained  by  actual  partici- 
pation in  the  work  for  moral  betterment.  Such  doing  is 
eminently  more  valuable  than  much  telling.  But  there  are 
many  fields  where  doing  is  impossible  and  here  imaginal  situa- 
tions must  be  used  to  arouse  the  feelings.  The  heroism  of 
Comstock,  the  magnificent  fight  which  Lindsey  has  made, 
the  thrilling  career  of  Jacob  Riis,  the  less-known,  but  none 
the  less  inspiring  work  of  Mrs.  Josephine  Butler  in  England, 
and  the  campaigns  for  moral  reform  led  by  Hughes,  Roose- 
velt, LaFollette,  Folk,  Jerome,  Heney  and  others  offer  a  vast 
storehouse  of  material  which  may  be  drawn  upon  for  moral 
inspiration.  The  ethics  which  does  nor  inspire  by  great  tales 
from  the  front  of  the  fight  is  missing  its  opportunity.  Ethics 
must  burn  with  the  realities  of  modern  moral  enthusiasm. 

VI.     THE  ETHICS  TEXT 

President  Hall  has  in  an  obscure  publication  reviewed  the 
ethics  texts,  along  with  others,  which  were  used  from  the 
founding  of  Harvard  down  to  the  early  years  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  From  this  paper  we  learn  that  for  a  hundred 
years  after  the  founding  of  Harvard  logic  came  to  dominate 


THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS  459 

the  interest  of  pedagogues.  Disputations  and  the  ability  to 
participate  in  them  creditably  was  ranked  of  superior  impor- 
tance, while  ethical  teaching  sank  into  insignificance,  "  al- 
though the  forte  of  the  New  Englander  had  always  been 
character."  "  The  works  of  John  Robinson,  collected  by 
Ashton,  are  largely  ethical,  and  treat  of  health,  marriage,  lib- 
erty, fashions,  studies,  etc.  But  after  Roger  Williams  was 
banished  in  1636  and  the  Cambridge  Synod  had  condemned 
82  opinions,  the  Puritan  mind  narrowed  and  darkened  down, 
and  morals  consisted  in  Sabbath  observance,  Bible  reading, 
baptisms  and  other  theological  duties"  (33,  p.  142).  The 
beginnings  of  an  effort  to  teach  morals  apart  from  theology 
are  indicated  some  years  before  the  Revolution  in  a  text  pub- 
lished by  President  Thomas  Clap  of  Yale  in  1765.  This  is 
entitled  an  Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Foundation  of  Moral 
Virtue  and  Obligations:  Being  a  Short  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Ethics,  for  the  Use  of  the  Students  of  Yale  Col- 
lege. This  66-page  ethics  premises  that  "  as  moral  philos- 
ophy makes  a  considerable  part  of  our  academical  education 
and  is  nearly  connected  with  true  religion,  it  is  of  great  im- 
portance that  it  should  be  clearly  stated  and  fixed  upon  the 
right  foundations."  Virtue,  the  text  says,  "  is  not  by  nature 
but  a  Divine  gift."  Yet  he  discusses  several  of  the  chief 
virtues  on  their  merits,  and  defends  stratagem  in  war  as  not 
lying.  Another  index  of  the  beginning  of  a  separation  from 
theology  is  to  be  seen  in  the  gift  of  £1,362  by  John  Alford  to 
Harvard  College  in  1789  for  the  establishment  of  a  chair  of 
Natural  Religion,  Mental  Philosophy,  and  Civil  Polity.  Presi- 
dent Hall  includes  (33)  a  lengthy  quotation  from  Alford's 
will  which  declares  the  duties  of  the  chair  to  be,  among 
others,  demonstration  of  the  moral  attributes  of  the  Diety, 
the  doctrine  of  future  rewards  and  punishments,  obligations 
and  duties  of  man  to  his  Maker,  "  the  most  important  duties 
of  social  life,  resulting  from  the  several  relations  which  men 
mutually  bear  to  each  other;  and  likewise  the  several  duties 
which  respect  ourselves,  founded  not  only  on  our  own  in- 
terest but  also  on  the  will  of  God,"  to  the  coincidence  of 
revelation  and  reason  on  these  points,  tc  read  lectures  on 
"  application  of  laws  of  nature  to  nations  and  their  relative 
rights  and  duties,"  also  on  civil  government.  His  lectures  on 
natural  religion  were  to  be  read  to  all  four  of  the  academic 
classes,  those  on  moral  philosophy  to  the  two  senior  classes, 
and  those  on  polity  to  the  seniors  only. 

Ethics  was  at  first  sternly  opposed.  The  Calvanistic  colo- 
nials believed  that  through  religion  and  not  through  ethical 
instruction  was  moral  conduct  and  character  to  be  attained. 


4^0  THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS 

Cotton  Mather  is  quoted  as  objecting  to  the  employment  of  so 
much  time  on  ethics,  which  he  termed  a  "  vile  form  of  pagan- 
ism." In  continuing  President  Hall  says  that  although  taught 
from  the  first,  not  until  after  the  revivalism  of  1740  did  it 
slowly  advance  to  a  place  beside  and  then  above  logic.  At 
first  virtue  was  likeness  to  God  and  the  religious  sins  of 
prayerlessness,  unbelief,  etc.,  were  dwelt  upon.  There  was 
little  change  from  More's  Enchiridion  down  into  the  i8th  cen- 
tury to  Paley  whose  Principles  of  Moral  and  Political  Philos- 
ophy reached  in  1821  its  tenth  American  edition.  About  the 
only  progress  was  a  tediously  controversial  transition  from 
the  view  that  morality  was  a  code  of  laws  revealed  in  Scrip- 
ture by  God  to  the  view  that  his  code  was  best  studied  in  the 
innate  intuitions  and  sentiments.  This  change  being  due  to  the 
influence  of  Clarke,  Shaftesbury,  Cudworth,  and  Hutcheson. 
Strangely  enough  not  until  two  decades  before  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  which  owed  so  much  to  this  movement, 
did  the  ethical  texts  begin  again,  "  as  they  had  rarely  done 
since  Aristotle,  to  expatiate  upon  political  rights  and  duties 
that  though  few  were  inalienable"  (33,  p.  152).  McBride's 
Principles  of  Morality  was  one  of  the  first  to  have  physiolog- 
ical references  (published  in  1796).  President  Hall  concludes 
by  saying  that  the  Unitarian  movement,  the  anti-slavery  move- 
ment and  other  reforms  left  an  indellible  mark  on  college 
ethics. 

Mark  Hopkins  incidentally  remarks  in  his  text-book  that 
Paley's  ethics  were  formerly  taught  almost  universally  in  this 
country  (42,  p.  9).  And  although  his  own  teaching  at  Wil- 
liams is  said  to  have  been  considered  a  radical  innovation  in 
the  eyes  of  his  predecessor,  his  ethics  are  well  described  as 
semi-theological.  His  teaching  which  culminates  in  his  book, 
The  Law  of  Love  and  Love  as  a  Law,  is  a  hybrid  product  of 
Christian  ethics  and  the  Common  Sense  school ;  and  although 
published  many  years  after  Darwin  really  belongs  to  the  pre- 
Darwinian  school.  Thus  naturally  he  bases  his  theory  on  in- 
tellect, sensibility,  and  will,  with  the  moral  nature  treated  al- 
most as  a  coordinate  faculty.  All  these  are  but  functions  of 
the  person,  the  ego,  which  has  the  power  of  choice.  Choice 
is  the  object  of  moral  judgment;  and  obligation  is  recognition 
of  the  right  through  reason.  Less  than  a  third  of  the  book  is 
given  to  theory,  while  the  remainder  is  devoted  to  what  the 
law  of  love  would  require  us  to  do,  to  practical  ethics.  It  is 
this  which  made  Mark  Hopkins'  ethics  famous,  or  possibly 
infamous  in  the  eyes  of  his  critics,  and  it  shows  the  keen 
ability  of  the  man  to  sense  the  real  needs  of  his  students.  He 
presents  in  lucid  terms  the  duties  we  owe  to  ourselves,  the 
duty  of  perfecting  the  powers  of  the  mind  and  the  body  and 


THE   PEDAGOGY   OF    COLLEGE   ETHICS  461 

the  spirit,  care  in  the  formation  of  habits,  duties  regarding  the 
rights  of  others,  regarding  the  wants  of  others,  perfecting  and 
directing  the  powers  of  others ;  also  duties  from  special  rela- 
tions, as  the  family  government,  relation  of  the  sexes,  mar- 
riage, divorce,  parents  and  children,  society,  etc.  The  last 
chapter  concerns  the  duties  to  God,  cultivation  of  the  devo- 
tional spirit,  prayer,  use  of  the  Sabbath,  and  like  topics.  Thus 
did  his  genius  lead  him  to  anticipate  much  that  is  now  advo- 
cated in  our  modern  social  ethics.  Two  other  texts  which 
have  had  extensive  use  in  this  country,  Hickok's  and  Janet's, 
are  to  be  classed  with  Hopkins',  because  like  it  they  are  chiefly 
a  presentation  of  classified  duties.  Hickok's  appeared  about 
the  middle  of  the  last  century  (39).  For  him  the  ultimate 
rule  in  morals  is  Right.  This  is  ascertained  by  reason,  man's 
distinctive  quality.  This  ultimate  rule  of  right  is  simple,  im- 
mutable, and  universal.  Submission  to  this  Right  is  the  great 
duty  which  involves  all  other  duties.  Practically  the  entire 
book  is  devoted  to  a  statement  of  duties  and  authorities.  The 
duties  are  classified  and  worked  out  in  elaborate  detail,  seem- 
ingly covering  every  possible  question.  The  authorities  pre- 
sented are  the  civil  government,  divine  government,  and  pa- 
rental government.  Janet's  text  is  a  cold,  dead,  cadaverically 
repulsive  handbook  of  duties.  The  law  of  duty  is  in  itself  its 
own  aim.  "  Do  as  thou  shouldst  do  come  what  will "  is  its 
maxim.  Duty  being  absolute  is  universal.  The  law  of  duty 
is  obligatory  in  itself  and  also  because  derived  from  God.  The 
whole  is  a  detailed  statement  of  duties  of  justice,  concerning 
property  of  others,  toward  liberty  and  honor  of  others,  equity, 
charity,  and  self-sacrifice,  toward  the  state,  professional  du- 
ties, family  duties,  bodily  duties,  etc.,  etc.,  each  being  treated 
in  numerous  sub-headings.  The  absolute  nature  and  assump- 
tion of  finality  in  these  is  oppressive.  The  individual  is  seem- 
ingly placed  under  the  law  of  reason,  but  the  laws  have  already 
been  completely  worked  out  and  formulated  for  all  time.  All 
there  is  left  for  the  individual  to  do  is  to  meekly  submit,  take 
one  of  these  books  as  his  Baedeker  in  life  and  attempt  to  guide 
himself  through  each  experience  according  to  its  dicta. 

The  American  market  has  been  flooded  with  text-books  in 
ethics.  President  Hall  says  in  the  article  just  described  that 
"  in  neither  logic,  psychology,  nor  any  branch  of  the  great 
science  of  man,  if  in  all  combined,  have  there  been  so  many 
text-books  of  American  make  as  in  ethics."  The  advances 
made  in  ethical  thought,  the  rivalry  between  the  different 
schools,  uncertainty  concerning  the  conclusions  advanced,  and 
the  unsatisfactory  results  of  its  pedagogy  are  doubtless  suffi- 
cient to  account  for  the  plethora  of  texts.  But  the  very  fact 
of  a  superabundance  calls  attention  to  its  causes,  and  it  will  be 


462  THE    PEDAGOGY    OF    COLLEGE    ETHICS 

seen  that  they  contain  the  germ  of  some  of  those  principles 
which  when  full  grown  will  make  for  a  more  efficient  and  satis- 
factory pedagogy  of  ethics.  Besides  that  written  designedly 
for  student  use,  there  is  a  voluminous  controversial  literature. 
Unfortunately  some  of  this  has  been  tried  out  on  the  students, 
and  still  more  unfortunately,  many  writers  of  texts  have 
allowed  controversial  material  to  slip  into  their  pages.  The 
difference  between  a  treatise  for  an  ethicist  and  a  text  for  a 
student  ought  to  be  too  well  appreciated  to  demand  comment. 
Such  books  as  Sidgwick's  Methods  of  Ethics,  Stephen's  Sci- 
ence of  Ethics  and  Bradley's  Ethical  Studies  are  obviously  not 
texts,  and  if  used  as  such  are  more  likely  to  lead  to  ethical 
ratiocination  than  to  a  real  interest  in  the  live  problems  of 
daily  morality,  A  recent  text  by  Fite  illustrates  the  confusion 
of  treatise  and  text.  The  nature  of  the  work  is  indicated  in 
the  preface  where  the  author  himself  says  that  "  the  work  was 
begun  with  the  intention  of  furnishing  simply  a  plain  state- 
ment of  the  existing  ethical  situation.  .  .  .  But  it  was 
found  impossible  to  make  a  plain  statement  without  adopting 
a  point  of  view  for  the  definition  of  the  problem  and  the  theo- 
ries in  question"  (27).  He  expresses  the  hope  also  that  the 
book  will  be  of  interest  to  those  already  familiar  with  the 
problems  as  well  as  of  value  to  those  beginning  the  study. 
Some  books  which  have  been  widely  used  in  teaching  are 
avowedly  and  clearly  devoted  to  some  one  school  or  theory; 
as,  for  instance,  Bowne  (8)  and  Martineau  (55).  The 
former's  Principles  of  Ethics  is  a  critique  in  the  form  of  an 
extended  essay,  with  theism  as  the  basis  and  end  of  his  argu- 
ment. His  frequent  dogmatism  might  be  condoned,  but  what 
excuse  can  there  be  for  the  omission  of  a  bibliography  or  full 
foot  notes  when  references  are  frequent?  And  not  infre- 
quently the  references  are  anonymous. 

However  quickly  the  evolutionary  theory  may  have  been 
adopted  and  applied  by  certain  schools  of  ethicists,  the  incor- 
poration of  its  attitude  in  our  texts  has  been  long  delayed. 
Religious  opposition  may  account  in  part  for  this,  but  doubt- 
less the  failure  to  appreciate  at  first  what  the  full  significance 
of  evolution  in  ethical  science  was  to  be  had  quite  as  much  to 
do  with  it.  Evolutional  ethics  was  at  first  but  a  modified  form 
of  Utilitarianism  and  this  was  sufficient  to  arouse  a  hindering 
opposition.  Mark  Hopkins  ignored  it  and  when  Hickok's 
text  was  revised  in  1901  evolution  found  no  place  in  its  pages. 
Von  Gizycki's  manual  adapted  from  the  German  by  Stanton 
Coit  (85)  shows  the  Darwinian  influence.  Paulsen,  although 
rejecting  the  evolutionistic  hedonism  which  had  sprung  up, 
was  nevertheless  apparently  much  influenced  by  the  Darwinian 
theory  in  the  formulation  of  his  own  theory  of  teleological  ener- 


THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS  463 

gism.  Muirhead  includes  a  very  clear  statement  of  evolution- 
ary hedonism  and  the  points  of  value  and  difficulty  in  it.  His 
section  on  moral  progress,  although  giving  practically  no  de- 
tails concerning  the  evolution  of  morals,  presents  very  clearly 
the  developmental  theory  and  shows  that  morals  are  relative 
and  progressive.  Martineau,  writing  first  twenty-six  years 
after  the  appearance  of  the  Origin  of  Species  and  again  in 
later  editions,  uses  evolutionary  ethics  as  illustrative  of  Hedon- 
istic theories  and  devotes  one  chapter  to  it.  Mackenzie,  pub- 
lishing first  in  1893  (54),  had  a  broader  conception.  He  pre- 
sents conduct  as  evolving  from  its  germs  in  the  lower  ani- 
mals, and  a  similar  treatment  of  the  moral  judgment  which  he 
conceives  as  developing  from  custom  through  law  to  reflective 
principles,  from  judgments  of  external  acts  to  that  of  inner 
purpose  and  character,  from  ideas  peculiar  to  circumstances 
of  particular  tribes  and  nations  to  ideas  that  have  a  universal 
validity.  Brief  though  this  phase  of  his  work  is,  which  today 
seems  superficial,  it  is  nevertheless  a  herald  of  what  is  to 
come.  Although  he  recognizes  the  development  of  ethical 
judgment,  Mackenzie's  theistic  faith  leads  him  to  reject  evolu- 
tion as  a  theory  of  ethics.  Seth's  chief  interest  is  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  personality,  and  so  beyond  a  few  references 
evolution  finds  no  place  in  his  widely  used  text.  Hyslop's 
work  on  the  fundamental  problems  of  theoretical  ethics,  ap- 
pearing in  1895,  recognizes  evolutional  theory  but  does  not 
give  it  much  place  or  significance  (46).  This  delayed  recog- 
nition of  evolution  is  of  course  still  further  due  to  the  lack  of 
thorough  presentations  of  the  development  of  morals  and  of 
moral  instincts.  The  monumental  studies  of  these  topics  made 
by  Sutherland,  Westermarck  and  Hobhouse  appeared  between 
1898  and  1908.  Dewey  and  Tufts  have  tried  to  make  ample 
provision  for  the  evolutional  attitude  toward  conduct  and  for 
the  products  of  the  evolutional  studies  of  morals.  Their  book 
is  divided  into  three  sections  of  which  the  first  is  devoted  to 
the  beginnings  and  growth  of  morality.  Certain  aspects  of 
early  group  life  are  first  presented ;  such  as,  its  nature  as  a 
political  unity  and  solidarity,  as  an  economic  and  industrial 
unit,  as  a  religious  unit,  etc.  Then  follow  several  chapters  on 
the  growth  of  morality  through  the  rationalizing  and  idealiz- 
ing process,  the  socializing  process,  and  the  process  from  cus- 
tom to  conscience.  This  treatment  is  amplified  by  illustration 
in  the  Hebrew,  Greek  and  modern  civilizations. 

For  the  presentation  of  the  great  philosophic  problems  and 
the  nature  of  their  discussions  past  and  present,  there  has  been 
no  uniformity.  Here  every  man  is  his  own  master  and  each 
follows  the  line  of  his  own  interest.  Generally  speaking  the 
less  attention  has  been  given  to  the  Greek  thinkers  and  their 


464  THE   PEDAGOGY   OF    COLLEGE   ETHICS 

theories.  But  the  modern  discussions  of  Utilitarianism  vs. 
Intuitionism,  Determinism  vs.  Indeterminism,  and  Egoism  vs. 
Altruism  are  clearly  reflected  in  the  texts  and  sometimes  pre- 
sented at  length.  Evidently  there  has  been  a  decided  differ- 
ence of  opinion  concerning  the  importance  of  presenting  these 
discussions  to  the  student.  Some  like  Davis  (18)  would  give 
an  introductory  course  in  the  elements  of  ethics  and  postpone 
the  philosophical  quibbles  to  a  later  stage,  his  aim  being  to 
provide  the  student  with  "  a  rounded  scheme  "  of  ethics  by  a 
careful  consideration  of  his  obligations  to  himself  and  to 
society  before  taking  him  into  the  various  "  and  often  con- 
flicting views  of  philosophical  moralists."  Von  Gizycki,  in 
his  students'  manual,  presents  ethics  as  independent  of  meta- 
physics and  theology,  and  this  point  is  stressed.  Mackenzie, 
on  the  contrary,  concludes  that  metaphysics  is  indispensable. 
Hyslop  has  devoted  an  entire  text  to  theoretic  ethics.  Not 
infrequently  the  texts  present  a  confusing  discussion  of  ethical 
theory.  Perhaps  their  aim  was  to  avoid  the  tedium  of  a 
thorough  treatment  of  the  different  schools  by  a  briefer  pre- 
sentation of  the  substance  of  the  argument  between  them  and 
what  the  author  thought  to  be  the  fallacies  in  it ;  if  so,  the  aim 
was  commendable  but  the  result  has  been  a  bewildering  array 
of  references  to  unfamiliar  names  and  schools.  The  mere 
mention  of  Sidgwick  or  Stephen  or  Kant  with  a  few  sen- 
tences about  their  position  scattered  here  and  there  through 
a  discussion  cannot  be  expected  to  do  more  than  to  create 
confusion.  Mackenzie  and  Seth  are  both  guilty  of  this  to  an 
unfortunate  degree.  Paulsen  and  Hyslop  have  avoided  the 
difficulty  by  devoting  an  introductory  chapter  to  the  history  of 
ethical  theory.  Martineau's  work  is  unique  in  this  field.  As 
the  title  suggests,  Types  of  Ethical  Theory,  his  aim  is  to 
classify  the  types  psychologically  and  under  each  type  to  pre- 
sent the  system  of  some  representative  thinker;  his  purpose 
was  not,  however,  historical  but  to  throw  a  side  light  on  his 
own  system,  hence  the  systems  presented,  although  represen- 
tative of  his  types,  do  not  form  a  complete  historical  series. 
In  fact,  some  of  the  greatest  thinkers  are  omitted  entirely. 
There  is  no  good  history  of  ethics  in  the  English  language 
either  for  class  room  work  or  for  general  reference.  Sidg- 
wick's  little  history  (76)  is  much  too  brief  and  over-empha- 
sizes the  English  schools  at  the  expense  of  the  presentation  of 
German  ethics.  There  is  an  excellent  source  book  for  collat- 
eral reading  by  Benjamin  Rand  (67),  which  is  a  compilation 
of  selections  from  the  writings  of  ethicists  from  Socrates  to 
Martineau,  and  there  is  now  a  good  history  of  ethics  within 
organized  Christianity  by  T.  C.  Hall  (35).  For  the  more  in- 
tensive study  of  particular  ethical  thinkers  of  the  past,  a  small 


THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS  46$ 

series  of  condensations  from  the  originals  has  been  started 
under  the  editorship  of  Prof.  E.  Hershey  Sneath.  Three  of 
these  have  been  published;  the  Ethics  of  Hegel  (81),  the 
Ethics  of  Hobbes  (80),  and  the  Ethics  of  Hume  (45). 

Every  writer  recognizes  that  ethics  is  based  in  large  part 
on  psychology,  and  so  states  it  in  his  text,  but  the  psychology 
on  which  each  bases  it,  wherever  it  is  presented,  is  with  a 
very  few  exceptions  the  traditional  faculty  psychology.  The 
historical  antithesis  between  body  and  soul,  between  emotions 
and  intellect  has  been  preserved  and  will  be  so  long  as  ethical 
writers  persist  in  ignoring  the  contributions  of  modern  psy- 
chology. Ethics  admits  that  it  is  based  upon  other  sciences; 
hence  it  has  no  right  to  dictate  what  the  nature  of  those 
sciences  shall  be,  but  to  accept  from  them  whatever  they  say 
is  the  truth.  And  the  psychologist  has  long  said  that  the 
faculty  psychology  was  false  and  hence  the  attempt  to  deter- 
mine the  relative  moral  value  of  intellect  and  feeling  vain  and 
futile.  The  tendency  now  among  psychologists  is  to  consider 
emotions  and  intellect  as  of  the  same  original  stuff  or  as  so 
interrelated  as  to  be  inseparable  for  purposes  of  moral  judg- 
ment. But  writers  of  ethics  texts  have  been  slow  to  appre- 
ciate the  significance  of  the  advances  made  in  psychology, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  has  thrown  so  much  light  upon 
the  processes  involved  in  ethical  judgments  and  the  develop- 
ment of  conduct.  What  psychology  is  given  is  treated  with 
such  an  ethical  bias  that  a  student  coming  to  a  course  in 
ethics  after  a  course  in  psychology  would  scarcely  recognize 
the  references  to  the  science  he  had  just  left.  One  would,  of 
course,  expect  the  faculty  psychology  in  the  older  texts  like 
that  of  Mark  Hopkins,  but  one  would  scarcely  expect  it  in 
Murray  (61)  published  in  1891.  It  is,  nevertheless,  there 
and  Murray  devotes  about  one  hundred  and  forty  pages  to 
what  he  calls  the  psychological  basis  of  ethics.  But  his  treat- 
ment of  the  moral  consciousness  under  the  familiar  three 
heads,  intellect,  feeling,  and  will,  is  antiquated  and  superficial. 
Martineau's  well-known  Types  of  Ethical  Theory  (55)  is  a 
specific  attempt  to  present  ethical  systems  from  the  psycho- 
logical view  point,  but  as  a  text  for  present  use  it  is  of  course 
quite  useless  because  its  psychology  is  that  of  three  decades' 
ago.  No  psychologist  today  would  classify  Plato,  Descartes 
Malebranche,  and  Spinoza  as  unpsychological ;  nor  would  he 
sharply  separate  Shaftesbury  and  Hutcheson  from  the  utili- 
tarian and  evolutionary  hedonists  and  treat  the  former  as 
distinctly  an  ethics  of  the  feeling  faculty  and  the  latter  as  an 
ethics  of  the  faculty  of  sensibility.  Muirhead  in  1892  happily 
departs  from  the  faculty  treatment  of  will  and  considers  it 


466  THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS 

as  a  conscious  process.  Thus  treating  it  he  finds  that  the 
moral  judgment  may  apply  with  equal  justice  to  conduct,  self, 
character,  and  motive.  Mackenzie  and  Seth,  both  of  whose 
texts  appeared  within  the  next  two  years,  contain  but  a  super- 
ficial treatment  of  the  psychological  basis.  Mackenzie  has  a 
section  which  he  calls  chiefly  psychological,  but  it  is  a  very 
general  treatment  of  desires  and  will,  motive  and  intention, 
conduct  and  character,  with  the  suggestion  of  a  faculty 
psychology.  Perhaps  there  is  in  this  a  trace  of  Martineau. 
Seth  emphasizes  the  importance  of  psychology,  but  his  treat- 
ment is  more  ethical  than  psychological.  He  moralizes  on 
the  significance  of  deliberation  and  choice  in  the  formation 
of  character,  and  stresses  habit  and  instinctive  action.  On 
the  whole  it  savors  strongly  of  James'  chapter  on  habit. 
Davis'  whole  purpose  is  different,  to  postpone  the  theory  of 
ethics  until  the  student  is  well  grounded  in  practical  ethics, 
hence  his  treatment  is  very  brief,  apparently  it  is  merely  in- 
tended to  familiarize  the  student  with  the  significance  of  the 
terms,  desire,  volition,  choice,  etc.  Fite  is  so  absorbed  in  his 
own  discussion  of  the  classical  theories  that  he  has  little  time 
for  psychology.  The  Dewey  and  Tufts  text,  although  it  has 
no  section  devoted  exclusively  to  psychology,  is,  nevertheless, 
pervaded  with  the  contributions  of  genetic  and  social  psy- 
chology. In  Mezes'  treatment  of  the  origin  and  development 
of  conscience  there  is  also  much  of  the  descriptive  genetic 
method  of  treatment. 

Since  ethics  came  to  have  a  place  of  its  own  in  the  curric- 
ulum, there  has  never  been  a  complete  lack  of  apprecia- 
tion of  the  importance  of  social  ethics,  although  the  emphasis 
and  space  given  to  it  has  depended  upon  the  inclinations  and 
personal  interests  of  the  author.  Yet  there  has  been  an 
unmistakable  tendency  toward  a  greater  stress  upon  social 
ethics,  which  may,  doubtless,  be  correlated  with  the  growth 
of  sociology,  interest  in  social  welfare,  and  the  general  de- 
mand of  loyalty  to  the  larger  group.  An  interesting  and  sig- 
nificent  index  of  the  early  stages  of  this  growth  is  to  be 
found  in  the  preface  to  the  1879  edition  of  Hickok's  text 
which  appeared  twenty-five  years  after  the  first  edition.  This 
states  that  the  new  edition  contains  a  more  complete  con- 
sideration of  the  general  questions  of  the  state  and  state 
authority,  with  "  particular  reference  to  punishment,  property, 
taxation,  representation,  religion,  and  education."  Strangely 
enough,  however,  it  still  included  a  lengthy  discussion  of 
slavery.  Personal  ethics,  also,  in  the  early  texts  was  stressed, 
even  down  to  the  little  details  of  daily  life,  but  with  an  arbi- 
trary manner  which  savors  of  the  heteronomous  theological 


THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS  467 

ethics  from  which  the  science  was  then  slowly  separating  it- 
self. Janet  and  Hopkins  belong  to  this  type.  In  Martineau 
the  personal  and  social  is  involved  but  indirectly,  it  is  apart 
from  his  field  and  purpose.  Although  Muirhead  has  an  ex- 
cellent presentation  of  theory  and  psychology,  he  is  peculiarly 
deficient  in  applied  ethics.  Mackenzie  touches  this  field  but 
only  that :  he  says  that  he  has  not  space  to  more  than  men- 
tion the  personal  and  social  problems.  Seth  includes  some 
of  the  problems  of  social  ethics,  but  like  Mackenzie  in  a 
rather  insufficient  manner.  His  great  aim  is  the  development 
of  personality  and  toward  that  end  all  that  he  mentions  is  de- 
signed. The  moral  life  is  treated  with  insight  and  sympathy 
evidently  born  of  much  thought  and  of  a  great  soul,  but  if 
one  is  looking  for  the  consideration  of  the  current  moral 
problems  of  society  and  social  conditions  he  does  not  find  it 
here.  Nearly  a  half  of  Paulsen,  however,  is  devoted  to  the 
discussion  of  these  personal  and  social  problems.  Illumi- 
nated by  his  winning  style,  his  lectures  stimulate  a  serious 
consideration  of  vital  questions.  But  they  are  lectures  and 
as  such  are  probably  better  adapted  to  use  as  corollary  read- 
ing than  for  text  book  work.  Davis'  elementary  text  is,  as  has 
been  intimated  above,  devoted  almost  exclusively  to  these  top- 
ics. His  first  section  on  obligation  discusses  in  a  descriptive  dis- 
cursive manner  and  in  a  carefully-chosen  sequence  these  sub- 
jects:—  Rights,  liberty,  trespass,  law,  sanctions,  right  and 
wrong,  justice,  duty  and  virtue,  selfishness,  service,  charity, 
welfare,  deity.  In  this  section  man  is  presented  in  his  indi- 
vidual relations,  while  in  the  second  section  he  is  presented 
in  his  social  relations  and  the  rights  and  obligations  thereby 
entailed  are  discussed  under  the  topics, — family,  community, 
state,  and  church.  In  this  regard  Mezes'  text  has  certain 
peculiar  features.  Nearly  a  half  of  the  book  is  given  to  the 
discussion  of  objective  morality  the  criterion  of  which  is 
ultimate  sentient  welfare.  The  Platonic  virtues  of  courage, 
temperance,  wisdom,  and  justice  with  the  addition  of  benevo- 
lence are  taken  up  singly  and  discussed  at  length,  although 
the  treatment  is  rather  more  historical  than  modern.  Under 
temperance  the  ethical  problems  of  sex  and  marriage  are  in- 
cluded but  are  discussed  in  very  general  terms.  Justice  is 
treated  at  length  and  almost  entirely  from  a  legal  aspect. 
This  lengthy  legal  discussion  is  at  least  unusual  in  an  ethics 
text.  Two  pages  only  of  the  section  on  justice  are  devoted  to 
the  consideration  of  charity,  in  which  welfare  agencies  are  men- 
tioned in  the  abstract.  Benevolence  is  treated  historically  and 
analytically,  i.  e.,  discussing  the  various  feelings  involved,  as, 
hostile,  friendly,  etc.  A  chapter  on  welfare  is  a  discourse  in 


468  THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS 

a  rather  abstract  manner  on  Hedonism,  Eudemonism  and 
national  welfare.  The  emphasis  placed  in  such  a  text  on  the 
importance  of  moral  education  for  the  development  of  con- 
science in  the  child  is  unique.  Dewey  and  Tufts  have  two 
excellent  chapters  on  the  place  of  self  in  the  moral  life  and 
on  personal  virtues.  About  a  third  of  their  text  is  given  to 
a  discussion  of  conduct  as  action  in  society,  but  instead  of 
attempting  a  general  survey,  they  find  it  best  to  center  atten- 
tion upon  three  phases  of  conduct  which  are  of  especial  in- 
terest and  importance;  namely,  political  rights  and  duties,  the 
production,  distribution,  and  ownership  of  wealth,  and  the 
relations  of  domestic  and  family  life.  In  the  texts  generally 
the  presentation  of  the  individual's  relationship  to  philan- 
thropies and  movements  for  moral  improvement  tends  more 
to  be  an  abstract  discussion  of  principles ;  and  in  the  con- 
sideration of  social  problems  in  ethics,  politics,  as  it  has  often 
been  termed,  the  presentation,  with  the  exception  of  Dewey 
and  Tufts',  is  more  abstract  than  concrete. 

A  few  books  have  appeared  which  represent  individual 
departures  in  the  pedagogy  of  ethics.  Among  these  are  Presi- 
dent Hyde's  Practical  Ethics  (43),  President  King's  Rational 
Living  (48),  and  MacCunn's  Making  of  Character  (53). 
The  first  of  these  is  just  what  its  name  implies,  a  practical 
ethics.  President  Hyde  includes  no  philosophical  system  nor 
any  theoretical  ethics ;  his  book  is  wholly  practical  and  is 
a  short  presentation  of  the  virtues  of  life  and  the  factors  in 
virtuous  living.  He  takes  the  different  objects  of  life  and 
presents  their  several  phases,  namely,  as  duty,  virtue,  reward, 
temptation,  vice  of  defect,  vice  of  excess,  and  penalty.  The 
objects  of  life  discussed  are, — food  and  drink,  dress,  exercise, 
work,  property,  exchange,  sex,  knowledge,  time,  space,  for- 
tune, nature,  art,  animals,  fellow-men,  poor,  wrong-doers, 
friends,  family,  state,  society,  self,  God.  It  is  significant  that 
sex  is  omitted  from  the  text  proper  and  is  treated  briefly  in 
the  preface.  President  Hyde  says,  "  It  is  unwise  to  intrust 
a  subject  so  personal  and  delicate  to  the  vicissitudes  of  a 
public  class-room."  He  considers  this  to  be  the  imperative 
duty  of  parents  and  that  which  he  has  put  in  his  preface  on 
the  subject  is  in  the  nature  of  an  outline  for  parents.  The 
style  of  the  book  is  aphoristic,  brief,  terse,  and  to  the  point. 
Motto-like  sentences  may  be  picked  up  at  random.  The  em- 
phasis is  rather  on  the  individual,  or  from  the  point  of  view 
of  self-realization,  and  public  morality,  or  politics,  is  rather 
incidental.  Welfare  agencies  and  movements  for  civic  better- 
ment are  mentioned  in  the  abstract.  President  King's  text  is 
an  effort  to  present  or  to  call  attention  to  the  moral  aspects,  or 


THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  COLLEGE  ETHICS          469 

contributions,  of  psychology.  He  thus  presents  the  impor- 
tance of  habit-forming,  mental  hygiene,  as  well  as  physical 
hygiene,  exercise  of  body  and  phases  of  mental  activity,  as 
will  and  attention,  with  some  slight  philosophical  and  educa- 
tional suggestions.  MacCunn's  Making  of  Character  is  writ- 
ten from  an  entirely  different  view  point,  but  a  suggestive  one. 
It  is  written  for  schools  and  training  colleges  and  its  purpose 
is  educational.  Its  scheme  is  the  presentation  of  the  factors 
and  forces  to  be  met  and  used  in  the  building  of  character. 
The  first  part  discusses  the  congenital  endowment  and  its 
manifestations  in  temperament,  also  the  instincts,  desires, 
capacities,  development  and  repression,  and  habit.  The  second 
part  concerns  the  educative  influences, —  the  bodily  health, 
family,  livelihood,  citizenship,  religious  organizations,  social 
influences,  power  and  use  of  example,  precept,  etc.  Another 
part  is  on  soundness  of  judgment  and  concerns  the  education 
of  the  moral  judgment,  the  growth  of  the  individual  ideal,  the 
practical  value  of  theory,  etc.  A  fourth  and  last  part  presents 
the  facts  of  self-development  and  control.  It  is  written 
simply,  clearly,  and  in  a  stimulating  manner.  The  aim  is  for 
a  dynamic  rather  than  a  static  treatment  of  facts  of  the  moral 
life.  For  the  teacher  of  social  ethics  there  are  now  several 
bibliographies  of  literature  for  both  direct  and  corollary  use : 
such  as,  the  Harvard  bibliography  for  reading  in  social  ethics 
and  allied  subjects  (38),  that  on  business  morals  by  Edwards 
(23),  and  that  by  the  Fabian  Society  (24). 

CONCLUSION 

Prophecies  are  proverbially  dangerous,  but  by  way  of  sum- 
mary and  conclusion  it  may  be  wise  to  indicate  in  brief  the 
probable  nature  of  the  ethics  text  and  course  of  the  future  as 
indicated  by  the  facts  brought  together  in  the  foregoing.  It  is 
evident  that  it  can  not  be  a  presentation  of  arid  theories,  which 
have  so  characterized  the  ethics  of  the  past.  In  the  demand 
for  an  improvement  of  the  moral  conditions  of  college  life  and 
of  the  morals  of  its  product  is  the  call  to  differentiate  between 
the  presentation  of  moral  speculation  and  the  preparation  for 
a  life  of  moral  activity.  It  means  that  the  ethics  course  is  to 
be  based  first  of  all  upon  the  immediate  and  the  future  needs 
of  the  student.  If  moral  philosophy,  speculative  ethics,  is 
taught  at  all,  it  will  be  presented  in  an  advanced  course.  The 
practical  must  take  precedence  over  the  theoretical.  The 
course  will  be  dominated  by  the  spirit  of  moral  efficiency,  the 
preparation  for  and  attainment  of  efficient  moral  character. 
Every  effort  will  be  made  to  clear  the  path  to  such  attainment 
over  every  obstacle.  The  essence  of  the  great  moral  problems 


47°  THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS 

of  the  past  will  be  included  because  of  their  reality  in  the  life 
of  every  individual,  but  they  will  appear  divested  of  their 
archaic  terminology  and  reference.  This  to  guide  the  forma- 
tion of  ideals.  In  the  place  of  the  disappearing  external  au- 
thorities will  be  built  up  the  internal  authority,  largely  uncon- 
scious, based  on  experience,  breadth  of  moral  vision,  the  feel- 
ing of  honor,  self-respect,  sympathy  and  the  feeling  of  per- 
sonal superiority  to  anything  beneath  the  most  virile  of  moral 
standards.  The  whole  tempered  and  vitalized  by  the  religious 
spirit  and  attitude. 

As  the  attitude  of  fatalistic  determinism  is  dangerous  to  the 
moral  progress  of  the  individual  and  to  the  formation  of  pro- 
gressive ethical  ideas,  it  must  be  combated  by  a  presentation 
of  the  fact  and  the  power  of  the  feeling  of  freedom  as  looked 
at  by  genetic  psychology,  a  position  which  is  at  once  true  to 
the  causal  interpretation  of  science  and  to  the  fact  of  personal 
influence  in  the  moral  progress  of  the  individual  and  the  race. 
The  evolutional  attitude  dominant  in  the  other  natural  sciences 
must  be  dominant  in  ethics.  But  for  pedagogical  and  moral 
reasons  the  evolution  of  ethics  needs  to  be  presented  with  its 
emphasis  upon  the  family  and  the  home.  The  evolutional 
study  of  ethics,  presented  rather  briefly,  will  be  designed  to  im- 
press the  student  with  the  age  and  power  of  the  moral  instinct 
and  how  from  the  home  it  has  grown  out  to  include  the  com- 
munity, the  nation  and  the  race.  Special  stress  will  be  laid  on 
the  moral  value  of  the  family  and  the  home  and  the  principles 
of  moral  education.  The  moral  life  will  be  presented  as  active, 
not  as  the  mere  passively  sinless.  The  ideal  is  moral  efficiency, 
which  includes  in  its  scope  physical,  mental,  and  moral  power. 
For  the  development  of  these  there  must  be  ample  considera- 
tion of  the  facts  of  personal  hygiene  which  lead  out  into  the 
larger  problems  of  community  and  national  hygiene.  And  the 
newer  science  of  eugenics  because  of  its  vast  moral  signifi- 
cance will  find  an  increasing  place  in  ethics.  In  its  breadth 
and  its  ideals  it  reaches  to  the  depths  of  the  rapidly  enlarging 
social  consciousness  of  the  adolescent  and  can  be  used  to 
arouse  feelings  of  self-respect,  of  obligation  to  "  pass  on  the 
torch  of  life  undimmed,"  and  of  a  religious  reverence  for  the 
vast  power  of  life  of  which  he  is  a  part,  and  of  which  a  part 
is  to  him  intrusted.  Its  reverential  attitude  toward  the  phe- 
nomena of  procreation  transfigure  the  sex  problem.  Condi- 
tions indicate  the  need  of  sex  instruction  and  from  the  eugenic 
point  of  view  it  will  have  a  place  in  ethics.  As  a  part  of  the 
youth's  preparation  for  the  morally  efficient  life,  must  be 
included  the  moral  problems  peculiar  to  the  different  vocations, 
much  of  the  work  and  needs  of  the  different  agencies  for  social 
betterment  and  moral  reform  which  he  may  have  occasion  to 
use  or  to  cooperate  with,  and  in  considerable  detail  the  newer 


THE   PEDAGOGY  OF   COLLEGE   ETHICS  47! 

moral  problems,  individual,  civic,  commercial,  and  political, 
which  are  being  faced  by  the  world  today  by  virtue  of  the  new 
social  conditions  of  life. 

The  new  ethics  will  strive  to  cultivate  efficiency,  the  broadest 
and  deepest  sympathy,  and  honor,  as  the  all  inclusive  virtues. 
It  will  make  a  far  greater  appeal  to  the  feeling  side  of  life 
than  the  old  ethics,  because  it  will  realize  that  the  larger  part 
of  the  moral  life  is  governed  by  emotion.  And  that  in  the 
teaching  of  ethics  the  more  lasting  impression  may  be  made 
if  the  emotion  is  aroused.  To  do  this  many  concrete  illustra- 
tions of  actual  cases  which  have  been  faced  and  conquered,  or 
which  still  remain  to  be  overcome,  will  take  the  place  of  the 
appeal  by  theory  to  the  reason.  Other  factors,  too,  than  the 
ethics  course  will  be  taken  into  consideration  in  the  control  of 
the  development  of  the  students'  moral  sense.  A  greater 
effort  will  be  made  to  ascertain  the  actual  factors  which  must 
impress  the  student  and  when  so  ascertained  to  direct  them  in 
the  most  beneficial  manner.  Some  of  these  college  problems 
will  be  brought  into  the  ethics  class  as  concrete  material.  The 
tremendous  power  of  "  college  spirit "  will  be  recognized  and 
used.  As  experience  is  one  of  the  most  vital  factors  in  the 
cultivation  of  character,  modes  of  expression  of  the  moral 
feeling  aroused  will  be  provided  for,  and  wherever  possible 
within  the  campus  walls  as  well  as  without.  The  students 
in  the  ethics  course  are  usually  older  students  and  through 
their  activities  the  college  spirit  can  be  moulded.  By  this 
means  the  great  power  of  moral  tradition  may  be  gradually 
changed  until  it  becomes  as  effective  as  the  moral  check  of 
public  sentiment  is  in  the  life  of  the  world,  or  even  more  so. 
The  ethical  value  of  college  experiences  will  be  recognized  to 
a  greater  degree  and  provision  made  whereby  more  can  par- 
ticipate in  them.  The  thrill  of  success  which  comes  with  vic- 
tory in  athletics,  in  academic  competition  of  all  sorts,  in  any 
kind  of  college  activity  which  brings  the  applause  of  fellow- 
students,  will  be  recognized  to  have  its  moral  value,  and 
along  with  it  will  be  cultivated  the  even  greater  thrill  of  per- 
sonal power  which  accompanies  the  recognition  of  a  moral 
victory.  For  all  this  there  is  needed  the  teacher  of  peculiar 
ability.  Mere  interest  and  facility  with  the  ethical  philosophies 
is  not  sufficient.  It  will  demand  a  wholesouled  individual 
who  knows  and  loves  to  deal  with  the  moral  problems  of  the 
college  youth.  It  will  demand,  to  borrow  President  Eliot's 
happy  phrase,  young  men  or  men  who  never  grow  old. 

The  writer  desires  especially  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to 
Dr.  Wm.  H.  Burnham,  Dr.  Theodate  L.  Smith,  and  Mr.  Louis  N. 
Wilson  for  invaluable  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  this  paper,  and 
to  President  G.  Stanley  Hall  and  the  faculty  of  Clark  University  for 
fellowship  appointments. 


472  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  COLLEGE  ETHICS 

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THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


1       OCT  %  1^6 

\ 

£         NOV  22  1935 

1       DEC  141937 

I       i3Jan52HLA 

1        <jhn'52U'" 

1     \y-f**K 

• 

\          ^^btsac 

g             _ 

LD  21-1007»i-7,'33 

